Epistemology and the Human Condition
Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that analyzes knowledge, including its origin, methods of acquisition, and limits. It explores questions like: What is knowledge? How do we acquire it? What are the limits of what we can know?
Review
Knowledge is subjective. We cannot be certain about everything, and what we believe to be true may not be provable to others.
Beliefs
There are two basic types of beliefs:
- Dubious Belief: This refers to a belief held without strong evidence or proof.
- Authentic Knowledge: This is a belief that we are sure of and can also prove.
Types of Knowledge
Theoretical Knowledge
This encompasses information that describes and explains the natural and social world. Some consider it contemplative and disinterested, arising from a desire for knowledge and contributing to our survival and well-being.
Practical Knowledge
This involves acting in the world to gain knowledge, such as manipulating the environment, producing goods, creating art, or determining the correct course of action.
Truth and Reality
We often consider external objects and events to be true or authentic. We also believe our claims about them are true. There are two main types of truth:
Truth of External Objects
Some philosophers distinguish between genuine reality (the objective, external world as it is) and apparent reality (reality as it appears to us). This distinction has been controversial. Some believe that appearances can deceive us and hide true reality. Accordingly, truth is identified with authentic reality, and the pursuit of truth is seen as a process of unveiling the authentic, which is hidden by appearances.
Truth of Propositions
Truth is not only attributed to reality but also to the claims we make about it. Thus, truth can be a property of our propositions. There are two kinds of truth in this context:
Truth of Empirical Propositions
Several theories address this:
- Correspondence Theory: A proposition is considered true when there is a fit between what it expresses and the reality it refers to. This was proposed by Aristotle.
- Coherence Theory: A proposition is considered true when it is consistent with other propositions within a system. Hegel was a proponent of this theory.
- Pragmatic Theory: A proposition is true when it leads to success. The truth or falsity of a proposition is determined by the consequences of acting upon it. William James was the author of this theory.
Truth of Formal Propositions
Formal propositions, such as mathematical statements, do not make claims about reality. Their truth cannot be based on correspondence. The only way they can be true is through internal consistency.
Criteria for Truth
Two key criteria for evaluating truth are evidence and intersubjectivity:
Evidence
Evidence, from the Latin “videre” (to see), refers to the clear and obvious presentation of facts. Knowledge is evident when it produces certainty that does not allow us to doubt its truth.
Inadequacy of this criterion: The feeling of certainty that accompanies evidence is a subjective mental state. It is not a satisfactory criterion because different individuals may have different feelings of certainty about the same thing. We are influenced by our social and cultural backgrounds, which can lead us to consider things as evident that are not necessarily true.
Intersubjectivity
For our beliefs to be considered true, they must be acceptable to any rational subject. This is based on the idea that objective knowledge is shared by all. An advantage of this criterion is that if something is recognized by everyone, it is more likely to be true. Truth requires the consensus of the community.
Inadequacy of this approach: Consensus does not guarantee truth. Even if everyone believes something, it may not be true. For example, society was once convinced of the geocentric model of the universe, which was later proven false by Galileo.
Spiritualism and Materialism
Spiritualism
Spiritualists argue that beneath the material reality we experience, there exists a spiritual reality that gives meaning to things like consciousness, morality, and God.
Materialism
Materialists deny the existence of spiritual realities and reduce everything to material or sensory phenomena.
Both approaches face challenges and raise unresolved questions. For example, they offer different perspectives on the meaning of life, the nature of pain and suffering, and the significance of death.
The Problem of the Meaning of Life
Philosophy grapples with the question of the meaning and purpose of life. The search for meaning is a constant in our lives. Some people find the idea of a meaningless existence absurd and seek a reason to justify suffering. If there is no purpose and life ends with death, what is the point of anything we do?
This problem remains unresolved and is tied to the experience of pain, suffering, and the inevitability of death.
Physical and Spiritual Pain
Physical Pain
Physical pain, like a toothache, involves various sensations (intensity, duration, quality), but all have a strong physical component. It is typically temporary, localized to a specific part of the body, and has a clear cause.
Spiritual or Existential Pain
This refers to a sense of anguish or distress that can be caused by various factors, such as loss, emotional or material deprivation, health problems, or dissatisfaction with oneself. It can be accompanied by physical sensations but is not reducible to them. This type of pain is often considered a consequence of the limitations of human existence.
Characteristics of Spiritual Pain
Differences between physical and spiritual pain:
- Physical Pain: Temporary or accidental, not our natural state, indicates something is wrong or damaged, has a physical cause, localized to a specific body part.
- Spiritual Pain: Can be temporary or a constant companion, may or may not have a specific cause, can be an attitude towards life, not localized, not physical in nature.
Some thinkers view spiritual pain as an inherent feature of human existence, a consequence of our finite condition. This perspective may seem pessimistic, but it can also be a source of hope and resilience. The only hope that makes sense arises from the experience of pain and suffering.
Death
The awareness of our own mortality is a fundamental element of human existence. We understand death as the end of life, the cessation of vital functions and the decomposition of the body. This applies to plants, animals, and humans. However, the human experience of death is unique.
Common Features of Death
For plants and animals, death occurs when vital organs fail. This can be due to external causes (e.g., being killed) or internal causes (e.g., disease). In this sense, plants and animals are programmed to die.
Specific Features of Human Death
Humans are aware of their own mortality. This knowledge shapes our existence. We are not immortal, and our time is limited. This awareness can be a source of anxiety and fear.
Experience of Death
Death is a personal and ultimately unknowable experience. We can only observe the death of others, which can evoke feelings of loneliness and despair. The true nature of death remains inaccessible to us.
Conceptions of Death
Since death is a mystery, various conceptions have emerged:
Final Death
Many people, especially those with a materialistic worldview, believe that death is the definitive end of existence. This view aligns with the idea that humans are solely physical beings.
Death as Transition
Some believe that biological death is not the end of existence. From a spiritual perspective, the soul or consciousness may continue to exist after the death of the body. This view suggests that death is a transition to another state of being, perhaps a better life or a different realm of reality.
Theories about what happens after death include:
- Immortality of the mind or soul
- Survival of a universal soul in which we are all included
- Reincarnation of the soul in different bodies
Conceptions of the Absolute
Pantheism
Pantheists believe that the absolute is a divine reality immanent in the world. God is identified with the unity of all existence, essentially with nature. Examples include some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Theism
Theists believe that the absolute is a transcendent divine reality, separate from the world. God created the world and can intervene in its events. God is often seen as personal, possessing qualities like kindness, intelligence, and power. Humans can access God through revelation and faith. Examples include Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
Deism
Deists believe that the absolute is a transcendent reality. God is the cause and foundation of the world but does not intervene in it. God is not personal and does not reveal himself. Humans can access God through reason alone. Voltaire was a prominent deist.
Atheism
Atheists reject and deny the existence of God. Since God does not exist, it is impossible to know or access him.
Agnosticism and Practical Atheism
Agnostics maintain a permanent and radical doubt about the existence of God. They neither confirm nor deny God’s existence, believing it is impossible to know or prove either way.
Indifference
Those who are indifferent neither confirm nor deny the existence of God because they are not interested in the question. They neither accept nor reject the possibility of accessing God because they have no interest in it.
The Religious Experience
Some thinkers consider belief in a deity to be natural. How can we justify belief in a divine being? For agnostics, it is an unfounded belief because a transcendent God is beyond reason. In contrast, for believers, belief in God is rationally justified through faith. Religion advocates for the possibility of accessing God through means other than pure reason. This access is more intimate and profound and is called religious experience.
The Encounter with God
The believer does not have any direct relationship with God as a person. There is a great distance that can only be overcome through mediation.
Mediations
Mediations are anything that reduces the distance between God and humans, allowing for encounter and recognition. There are two types:
Mediations in which God reveals himself
Humans can access God because God chooses to reveal himself to us. In this sense, any experience, event, or reality can be a mediation, as God can manifest himself through them.
Mediations in which humans relate to God
Humans can seek God through various means, which differ across religions. Examples include rituals, religious writings, prayers, and customs.
The Mystical Experience
The mystical experience is the most peculiar and unusual religious experience. It involves a direct and intense spiritual union with the divine. Mystics feel a sense of dissolving into God. They often engage in purification activities, such as meditation and fasting, to prepare for this encounter. The mystical experience is difficult to communicate, and mystics often use metaphors of love to describe it, emphasizing the emotional and spiritual intensity and the sense of self-forgetfulness and fusion with the divine. Saint John of the Cross and Saint Teresa of Avila are examples of Christian mystics.
Skepticism
Skepticism is the opposite of dogmatism. Moderate skepticism questions the possibility of certain and secure knowledge, while radical skepticism denies it altogether. Some skeptics believe that the desire for certain knowledge should be accepted as a guide for our lives, while others believe it should be rejected as unattainable. Pyrrho was an early skeptic who argued that knowledge cannot provide firm and secure foundations for our decisions.
Relativism
Relativism denies the existence of any absolute truth valid across time and place. It rejects the claim of objective and universal knowledge and believes that only individual opinions are valid within a given social, cultural, and historical context. The Sophists were early proponents of relativism.
The Conquest of Truth: A Collective Task
Combating ignorance and error is a collective duty of every human being. Even if we doubt the possibility of attaining absolute truth, we should strive to approach it as closely as possible. This requires maintaining an open and tolerant attitude, a commitment to investigation, and a concern for truth. The conquest of truth is a two-pronged effort: overcoming ignorance through study and information, and overcoming error through the critique of false knowledge.
We must constantly expand and deepen our knowledge in science, literature, art, professional fields, and philosophy. We must also be vigilant against self-deception and ideological distortions. We must recognize that knowledge is a collective heritage belonging to all humankind and that education should be defended as a universal and fundamental right.
Dualism and Monism
Dualism
Dualism postulates the existence of two distinct realities: the body and the mind. It emphasizes their contrasting nature and argues that they can exist separately and independently. Plato and Descartes are prominent representatives of dualism.
Platonic Dualism
Plato believed that humans are composed of a divine and immortal soul and a mortal and imperfect body. The soul’s natural state is to be separate from the body, as the body only disturbs and distracts it. Plato claimed that the true self is the soul.
Cartesian Dualism
Descartes believed that humans are composed of thinking substance (mind) and extended substance (body). The mind is characterized by thought, intangibility, and freedom, while the body is characterized by extension and the laws of matter. Descartes argued that the mind and body are separate and distinct realities, supporting the independence and immortality of the soul.
Dualism faces the challenge of explaining the interaction between mind and body if they are fundamentally different realities. The existence of this interaction is undeniable.
Monism
Monism claims that humans are unitary beings, denying that the mind is a separate reality from the brain.
Materialist Monism
Materialist monism asserts that humans are entirely physical and material, and therefore the mind is not fundamentally different from physical phenomena. Several variations exist:
- Behaviorism: Behaviorists deny the existence of the mind or mental processes. They understand behavior as a set of responses to environmental stimuli. However, this view struggles to account for the causal power of mental states, which seems intuitively obvious.
- Reductionism or Physicalist Identity Theory: This view claims that mental states are identical to neurophysiological states of the brain. The mind is identified with the physical brain. However, this raises the problem of how mental states can have different properties than neural states if they are the same thing.
Personalism
Personalism emphasizes the unity of the human being as both a bodily and spiritual being. It opposes both strict materialism and spiritualism, arguing that humans must be understood as a whole, with body and spirit as interconnected dimensions of the person.