Epistemological and Methodological Developments in Social Sciences
Epistemological and Methodological Developments
Evolutionary Period (19th Century)
Social sciences began to openly express concern for others. Explorers’ accounts, staff reports, and information from anthropological societies merged. This era introduced stages of social development (Marx, Spencer, Comte), the idea of progress, and the comparative method. Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, defined it as the observation of social research through comparison, experimentation, and historical analysis.
Classical Social Anthropology Period (Late 19th – Mid 20th Century)
Franz Boas, founder of the first U.S. anthropology department, questioned the comparative method and general laws. Malinowski pioneered participant observation, advocating for full immersion in a cultural context. This era professionalized the discipline and emphasized fieldwork. The Chicago School also utilized participant observation. The emic perspective, prioritizing those involved in social action, emerged, influenced by linguistics and phenomenological theory.
Plural Period (1960s-1990s)
Differences between sociology and anthropology blurred. Marxist and Weberian theories gained influence, and anthropology shifted towards complex societies. Interpretive anthropology focused on subjectivity and the textual rhetoric of ethnography, treating culture as a text. The challenge of maintaining cultural distance arose, even when focusing on sub-cultures.
Late 20th Century Onwards
Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical approach to strategic interaction became influential, applicable to all social relations, including participant observation. The observer must maintain a degree of disbelief, as social actors represent social action.
Reflections on Participant Observation
Two key issues arise: distance from the observed and observer reflexivity. Qualitative observation is naturalistic, with observation occurring within daily life. Maintaining cultural distance becomes difficult. Taylor and Bogdan advise against studying scenarios with personal or professional involvement. The researcher’s position on the observation-participation continuum depends on access to the social situation.
Various classifications of participant observer roles exist. Goid’s four basic types are:
- Total participant: A situation to avoid, as the researcher may lose objectivity and encounter ethical problems.
- Participant as observer: Accesses sensitive information, even without explicit consent, raising ethical concerns.