Epicurus, Utilitarianism and Christian Ethics: A Philosophical Overview
Epicurus
The Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC) believed that the only thing that exists is matter. He theorized that materials of different sizes (atoms) move in empty space and give rise to countless worlds. Epicurus denied the existence of the supernatural and fought against myths and superstitions, which he believed were the origin of fears and unhappiness.
For Epicurus, life’s purpose was to live happily during our short existence by seeking pleasure in our actions. He observed that both animals and children instinctively seek pleasure and shun pain (Hedoné is pleasure in Greek, hence the term hedonism).
To live a happy life and enjoy pleasure, Epicurus believed we must be guided by intelligence. Otherwise, indiscriminate enjoyment of pleasure can lead to suffering. He distinguished three types of desires or appetites, and consequently, three types of pleasures:
- Natural and necessary: such as the satisfaction of drinking water when thirsty.
- Natural but not necessary: such as erotic pleasures.
- Non-natural nor necessary: such as the satisfaction a smoker gets from lighting a cigar.
Epicurus believed that humans can live happily by enjoying pleasure and minimizing pain. To achieve this, we must learn to fully enjoy natural and necessary pleasures, be cautious with unnecessary pleasures, and abstain from those that are neither natural nor necessary. By living this way, one reaches inner peace (ataraxia) and freedom, allowing them to govern their lives and enjoy the greatest happiness possible.
Utilitarianism
David Hume denied that moral rules are based on reason. He argued that moral standards depend on sentiment, which leads humans to judge behavior as good or bad. Good (moral) behaviors are useful and benefit someone, including both the individual and others. Bad (morally) behaviors harm oneself and others.
Hume believed that humans possess a natural feeling of sympathy for humanity. Therefore, he considered the good to be what is useful for both the individual and society. These ideas were further developed in the 19th century by thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who aimed to make morality an exact science based on measurable facts.
Bentham established the “interest principle” as the foundation of ethics, which involves pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain. He argued that pleasures derived from satisfying others are stronger and more important than self-satisfaction. Thus, the interest principle is also a principle of happiness. Behavior is good if it produces happiness for both the individual and others.
Utilitarianism is a form of social hedonism that considers the welfare of others. To live happily, humans must strive to eliminate the elements that contribute to suffering.
Christian Ethics
Christianity, as a religion, aims to save humanity. Throughout history, Christian thinkers have addressed human problems, reflecting on experience and incorporating their faith into their philosophies. Christian ethics is influenced by religious beliefs.
While Aristotle viewed humans as rational beings aspiring to happiness through fulfilling their natural duties, Christian thought centers around God as the ultimate end and highest good. Human life is defined by our relationship with God. We live in God and should strive towards Him, finding happiness or blessedness in divine contemplation.
Christianity introduces a supernatural order above the natural one, to which human life is dependent. True happiness lies with God, and to achieve it, one must purify their soul by living according to God’s commandments and the Church, ultimately reaching perfection and contemplating the divine after death. The pursuit of perfection is the pursuit of God, the supreme Good.
The 13th-century philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotle’s naturalism with a religious dimension. He believed that the happiness described by Aristotle was limited. True happiness, for Aquinas, could only be found in God, the Infinite Good. Earthly things cannot satisfy our desire for happiness. Only in contemplating God in the afterlife can we find complete happiness. Human acts are good or bad depending on whether they lead us towards or away from God.
Aquinas’s ethics emphasizes the concept of natural law. He believed that every human possesses an innate understanding of natural law through conscience, which guides us towards proper behavior. This natural law, also known as moral law, aligns with the Ten Commandments and represents humanity’s participation in God’s eternal law, which governs the world and humanity.
Knowledge of natural law is accessible to all and its content is clear, universal, and unchanging.