Epicureanism, Cynicism, and Cicero’s Philosophy
The Epicureans and Cynics
The Epicureans believed the end goal of the state differed from the Stoic school of thought. Epicureans held a more subjective view of the good, believing the state’s purpose is to protect individuals from selfishness. They saw society as inherently prone to conflict and viewed the state as an artificial construct, created through consensus and social contract. The core agreement: “I promise not to inflict harm on another citizen.”
Cynics emerged as a philosophical school protesting the established system. It was an anti-establishment proposal, primarily attracting followers from the lower classes, foreigners, and the marginalized. Their theories challenged the core convictions of civilized life, rejecting the Greek ideal.
The Cynics’ critique, however, was largely nihilistic and destructive, offering no concrete alternatives to the system. They proposed a utopian political theory, bordering on anarchism, rejecting all forms of social power. They advocated for the wise man to separate from society, forming a kind of global, virtual community. Cynics lived outside the conventional community, believing they did not need society. They considered themselves citizens of the world (cosmopolitans), forming a universal citizenship. This idea significantly influenced Stoicism.
Cicero and Roman Jurists
Cicero’s *On the Republic*
Cicero, a highly influential figure in first-century Rome and a former consul, explored political philosophy in works like *On the Republic* and *On the Laws*. He focused on the Roman Republic and its underlying principles.
Cicero’s key ideas:
- There exists a universal natural law, originating from God, who governs the physical world.
- Justice is inherently linked to reason.
- Humans, through their rational nature given by God, can know true law.
- Right is lawful according to reason.
- This law cannot be modified or annulled.
- All humans are equal, and we can distinguish between just and unjust.
- Equality is a social task we must perform.
- The human being is an end in itself, and using humans as a means to an end is not justified.
- A regulated state is based on mutual respect for the rights and duties of citizens.
- The state is a moral community where people seek to satisfy their needs through law.
- The state is the common property of its citizens, serving mutual aid and just government.
Consequences of Cicero’s philosophy:
- Origin of Power: All authority comes from the collective power of the people and arises from the common good.
- Legitimacy of Power: Political power is legitimately exercised when it aligns with the law. The people’s power is embodied in public officials who administer justice.
- Limits of Power: The state and law are subject to God’s law, moral law, and natural law, limiting political power.
Roman Jurists
Roman Jurists were interpreters of law, practical legal operators rather than theoretical writers. They compiled, summarized, and gave logic to existing rules. Their ideas were compiled in works like the *Digest*, published in the 6th century. They distinguished three types of law:
- Ius Civile: Equivalent to positive law, conventional law.
- Ius Gentium: Refers to general principles guiding the law, substantially the same as natural law.