Environmental Issues and Solutions
2) Hydrosphere
• Clean water for drinking (a metabolic requirement
for living processes).
• Water for washing and cooking.
• Water used in agriculture and industry.
• Food resources from the sea, including fish,
crustacea, sea weed, etc.
• Food from fresh water sources, including
fish, crustacea and aquatic plants.
• Water flowing down from mountain ranges
harnessed to generate electricity in hydroelectric
projects.
The hydrosphere covers three quarters of the
earth’s surface. A major part of the hydrosphere
is the marine ecosystem in the ocean, while only
a small part occurs in fresh water. Fresh water
in rivers, lakes and glaciers, is perpetually being
renewed by a process of evaporation and rainfall.
Some of this fresh water lies in underground
aquifers. Human activities such as deforestation
create serious changes in the hydrosphere. Once
land is denuded of vegetation, the rain erodes
the soil which is washed into the sea.
Chemicals from industry and sewage find their
way into rivers and into the sea. Water pollution
thus threatens the health of communities
as all our lives depend on the availability of clean
water. This once plentiful resource is now becoming
rare and expensive due to pollution.
1) Atmosphere• Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic requirements).
• Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems
and domestic animals used by man as food.
• Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used
for the growth of plants (in turn are used
by man).
The atmosphere forms a protective shell over
the earth. The lowest layer, the troposphere,
the only part warm enough for us to survive in,
is only 12 kilometers thick. The stratosphere is
50 kilometers thick and contains a layer of
sulphates which is important for the formation
of rain. It also contains a layer of ozone, which
absorbs ultra-violet light known to cause cancer
and without which, no life could exist on
earth. The atmosphere is not uniformly warmed
by the sun. This leads to air flows and variations
in climate, temperature and rainfall in different
parts of the earth. It is a complex dynamic system.
If its nature is disrupted it affects all mankind.
Most air pollutants have both global and
regional effects.
Living creatures cannot survive without air even
for a span of a few minutes. To continue to support
life, air must be kept clean. Major pollutants
of air are created by industrial units that
release various gases such as carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and toxic fumes into the air.
Air is also polluted by burning fossil fuels. The
buildup of carbon dioxide which is known as
‘greenhouse effect’ in the atmosphere is leading
to current global warming. The growing
number of scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses and
trucks which run on fossil fuel (petrol and diesel)
is a major cause of air pollution in cities and
along highways.
Air pollution leads to acute and chronic respiratory
diseases such as various lung infections,
asthma and even cancer.
3) Lithosphere• Soil, the basis for agriculture to provide us
with food.
• Stone, sand and gravel, used for construction.
• Micronutrients in soil, essential for plant
growth.
• Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and fungi
in soil, important living organisms of the
lithosphere, which break down plant litter
as well as animal wastes to provide nutrients
for plants.
• A large number of minerals on which our
industries are based.
• Oil, coal and gas, extracted from underground
sources. It provides power for vehicles,
agricultural machinery, industry, and
for our homes.
Dams problems
• Fragmentation and physical transformation
of rivers.
• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to
displacement of people.
• Water logging and salinisation of surrounding
lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging
their habitat and cutting off their migration
routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
• The emission of green house gases from
reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and
carbon inflows from the catchment is a recently
identified impact.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the
lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence
of indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered
disproportionately from the negative impacts
of dams and often been excluded from
sharing the benefits. In India, of the 16 to 18
million people displaced by dams, 40 to 50%
were tribal people, who account for only 8% of
our nation’s one billion people.
Conflicts over dams have heightened in the last
two decades because of their social and environmental
impacts and failure to achieve targets
for sticking to their costs as well as achieving
promised benefits. Recent examples show
how failure to provide a transparent process that
includes effective participation of local people
has prevented affected people from playing an
active role in debating the pros and cons of the
project and its alternatives. The loss of traditional,
local controls over equitable distribution
remains a major source of conflict.
[In India, a national assessment of dam
projects cleared in the 1980s and 90s shows
that in 90% of cases the project authorities
have not fulfilled the environmental conditions
under which environmental clearance
was given by the GOI under the EPA of 1986.]
What can you do to save electricity?
• Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave
the room.
• Use tube lights and energy efficient bulbs
that save energy rather than bulbs. A 40-
watt tube light gives as much light as a 100
watt bulb.
• Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on
tubes and bulbs decreases lighting levels by
20 to 30 percent.
• Switch off the television or radio as soon as
the program of interest is over.
• A pressure cooker can save up to 75 percent
of energy required for cooking. It is
also faster.
• Keeping the vessel covered with a lid during
cooking, helps to cook faster, thus saving
energy.
3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM Structural aspects
Components that make up the structural aspects
of an ecosystem include:
1) Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.
2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates,
Lipids – link abiotic to biotic
aspects.
3) Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture,
Light & Topography.
4) Producers – Plants.
5) Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large
animals.
6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers
– fungi.
Functional aspects
1) Energy cycles.
2) Food chains.
3) Diversity-interlinkages between organisms.
4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles.
5) Evolution.
Types of Ecosystems
| Terrestrial Ecosystems | Aquatic Ecosystems |
|---|---|
| Forest | Pond |
| Grassland | Lake |
| Semi arid areas | Wetland |
| Deserts | River |
| Mountains | Delta |
| Islands | Marine |
Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are
found in different types of forests, grasslands,
semiarid areas, deserts and sea coasts. Where
the land is intensively used, these have been
gradually modified over several thousand years
into agricultural and pastoral regions. In the recent
past they have been rapidly converted into
intensively irrigated agricultural ecosystems or
into urban and industrial centers. Though this
has increased production of food and provides
the raw material for ‘consumer’ goods
that we use, the overuse and misuse of land
and natural ecosystems has led to a serious
degradation of our environment. The unsustainable
use of environmental goods such as soil,
water, fuelwood, timber from forest, grasses
and herbs from grasslands for grazing and repeatedly
burning the grass, degrades these natural
ecosystems. Similarly, improper use of resources
can destroy the services that the natural
ecosystems provide. These processes of nature
such as photosynthesis, climate control, prevention
of soil erosion are disturbed by many
human activities. When our human population
was small, most ecosystems could supply all our
needs. Resources were thus used ‘sustainably’.
As industrial ‘development’ led to a very great
increase in consumption of resources, the short
term economic gains for people became an indicator
of progress, rather than long term ecological
benefits. This has resulted in an ‘unsustainable
use’ of natural resources. Forests thus
disappear, rivers run dry, deserts begin to spread,
and air, water and soil become increasingly polluted
as by-products of development. Human
well being itself is then seriously affected.
3.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine
environments of the seas and the fresh water
systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands.
These ecosystems provide human beings with a
wealth of natural resources. They provide goods
that people collect for food such as fish and
crustaceans. Natural aquatic systems such as rivers
and seas break down chemical and organic
wastes created by man. However, this function
has limitations, as the aquatic ecosystem cannot
handle great quantities of waste. Beyond a
certain limit, pollution destroys this natural function.
If aquatic ecosystems are misused or over utilized,
their ability to provide resources suffers in
the long term. Over-fishing leads to a fall in the
fish catch. River courses that are changed by
dams to provide electricity affect thousands of
people who do not get a continuous supply of
water downstream for their daily use. When
wetlands are drained, their connected rivers tend
to cause floods. These are all examples of unsustainable
changes in the use of natural resources
and nature’s ecosystems that are dependent
on hydrological regimes.
Water is an important factor in all our ecosystems.
Several ecosystems exist in freshwater and
marine salt water. There is very little fresh water
on earth, which is a key resource for people
all over the world.
Ecosystem goods and services
Direct Values:
These are resources that people depend upon
directly and are easy to quantify in economic
terms.
• Consumptive Use Value – Non-market
value of fruit, fodder, firewood, etc.
that are used by people who collect
them from their surrounds.]
• Productive Use Value – Commercial
value of timber, fish, medicinal plants,
etc. that people collect for sale.
Indirect Values:
These are uses that do not have easy ways to
quantify them in terms of a clearly definable
price.
• Non-consumptive use value – scientific
research, bird-watching, ecotourism,
etc.
• Option value – maintaining options for
the future, so that by preserving them
one could reap economic benefits in the
future.
India’s Biogeographic Zones
1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans
Himalayan region of Ladakh.
2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam
and other North Eastern States.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan
rivers flow into the plains.
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6. The semi arid grassland region of the
Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
7. The Northeast States of India,
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala.
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt
with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves.
What is a desert or a semi-arid ecosystem?
Deserts and semi arid areas are located in Western
India and the Deccan Plateau. The climate
in these vast tracts is extremely dry. There are
also cold deserts such as in Ladakh, which are
located in the high plateaus of the Himalayas.
The most typical desert landscape that is seen
in Rajasthan is in the Thar Desert. This has sand
dunes. There are also areas covered with sparse
grasses and a few shrubs, which grow if it rains.
In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty
and sporadic. In an area it may rain only once
every few years. In the adjoining semi arid tract
the vegetation consists of a few shrubs and
thorny trees such as kher and babul.
The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly
specialised arid ecosystems. In the summers they
are similar to a desert landscape. However as
these are low-lying areas near the sea, they get
converted to salt marshes during the monsoons.
During this period they attract an enormous
number of aquatic birds such as ducks, geese,
cranes, storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous,
as it is the only known breeding colony of the
Greater and Lesser Flamingos in our country.
The Little Rann of Kutch is the only home of the
wild ass in India.
Desert and semi arid regions have a number of
highly specialized insects and reptiles. The rare
animals include the Indian wolf, desert cat,
desert fox and birds such as the Great Indian
Bustard and the Florican. Some of the commoner
birds include partridges, quails and
sandgrouse.
Types and sources of Air Pollution
What is air pollution?
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable
solid or gaseous particles in the air in
quantities that are harmful to human health and
the environment. Air may get polluted by natu-
ral causes such as volcanoes, which release ash,
dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires
that are occasionally naturally caused by lightning.
However, unlike pollutants from human
activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to
remain in the atmosphere for a short time and
do not lead to permanent atmospheric change.
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable
sources are produced both by natural
events (for example, dust storms and volcanic
eruptions) and human activities (emission from
vehicles, industries, etc.). These are called primary
pollutants. There are five primary pollutants
that together contribute about 90 percent
of the global air pollution. These are carbon
oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, volatile organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons)
and suspended particulate matter.
Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere
when certain chemical reactions take place
among the primary pollutants are called secondary
pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic
acid, etc.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and
toxic gas produced when organic materials such
as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely
burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest
source of carbon monoxide. The number of vehicles
has been increasing over the years all over
the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained
and several have inadequate pollution control
equipment resulting in release of greater
amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide
is however not a persistent pollutant. Natural
processes can convert carbon monoxide to
other compounds that are not harmful. Therefore
the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide
if no new carbon monoxide is introduced
into the atmosphere.
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing
fossil fuels are burnt.
Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts.
Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are involved
in the production of secondary air pollutants
such as ozone.
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting
of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They either
evaporate from fuel supplies or are
remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.
Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when
it rains and run into surface water. They cause
an oily film on the surface and do not as such
cause a serious issue until they react to form
secondary pollutants. Using higher oxygen concentrations
in the fuel-air mixture and using
valves to prevent the escape of gases, fitting of
catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of
the modifications that can reduce the release
of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for
example, smoke particles from fires, bits of asbestos,
dust particles and ash from industries)
dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic
(cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust particles
and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed
into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure
to particulates can cause them to accumulate
in the lungs and interfere with the ability of the
lungs to exchange gases.
Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely
unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High
lead levels have been reported in the ambient
air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the
primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian
cities.
Pollutants are also found indoors from infiltration
of polluted outside air and from various
chemicals used or produced inside buildings.
Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are equally
harmful.
Effects of marine pollution: Apart from causing
eutrophication a large amount of organic
wastes can also result in the development of
red tides. These are phytoplankton blooms of
such intensity that the area is discolored. Many
important commercially important marine species
are also killed due to clogging of gills or
other structures.
When liquid oil is spilled on the sea it spreads
over the surface of the water to form a thin film
called an oil slick. The rate of spreading and the
thickness of the film depends on the sea temperature
and the nature of the oil.
Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent.
Salt marshes, mangrove swamps are likely to
trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for
these ecosystems thus suffer. For salt marsh
plants, oil slicks can affect the flowering, fruiting
and germination.
If liquid oil contaminates a bird’s plumage its
water repellent properties are lost. Water thus
penetrates the plumage and displaces the air
trapped between the feathers and the skin. This
air layer is necessary as it provides buoyancy and
thermal insulation. With this loss the plumage
becomes water logged and the birds may sink
and drown. Even if this does not happen loss of
thermal insulation results in exhaustion of food
reserves in an attempt to maintain body temperature
often followed by death. Birds often
clean their plumage by preening and in the process
consume oil which depending on its toxicity
can lead to intestinal, renal or liver failure.
Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic
conditions and result in the production of
toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus
eliminating the benthic fauna.
Fish and shellfish production facilities can also
be affected by oil slicks. The most important
commercial damage can however also come
from tainting which imparts an unpleasant
flavour to fish and seafood and is detectable at
extremely low levels of contamination. This reduces
the market value of seafood.
Floods and mitigation measures
The lower plain regions of India in particular
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in respect
of the Ganga and Assam in respect of the
Brahmaputra suffer from the adverse effects of
floods every year. The Ganga Brahmaputra basin
receives maximum run off within the three
monsoon months. Based on hydrological studies
carried out, it is estimated that only 18 percent
of the rainwater can be stored in dams,
reservoirs, etc. while 82 percent of the rainwater
flows through rivers ultimately into the sea.
Floods are therefore a recurring phenomenon
in our country.
Floods can be caused by natural, ecological or
anthropogenic factors either individually or as a
combined result. Anthropogenic activities such
as deforestation and shifting cultivation can also
contribute to floods.
However when the forests are cleared the rivers
turn muddy and swollen during the wet
monsoon season and run dry later on in the year
during the drier periods. An increasing proportion
of the rainfall is therefore released shortly
after precipitation in the form of floods.
The mitigation measures for floods include both
structural and non-structural measures.
• Reservoirs for impounding monsoon flows
to be released in a regulated manner after
the peak flood flow passes.
• Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction
of embankments and floodwalls.
• Improvement of flow conditions in the channel
and anti-erosion measures.
• Improved drainage.
The non-structural measures include:
• Flood plain management such as Flood Plain
Zoning and Flood Proofing including Disaster
Preparedness
• Maintaining wetlands
• Flood forecasting and warning services
• Disaster relief, flood fighting and public
health measures
• Flood insurance
6.3.1 Water Conservation:
Conserving water has become a prime environmental
concern. Clean water is becoming increasingly
scarce globally. With deforestation
surface runoff increases and the sub soil water
table drops as water has no time to seep slowly
into the ground once vegetation is cleared.
As many areas depend on wells, it has become
necessary to go on making deeper and deeper
wells. This adds to the cost and further depletes
underground stores of water. This could take
years to recharge even if the present rate of
extraction is reduced which seems hardly possible
in most situations.
As deforestation and desertification spreads due
to extensive changes in land use the once perennial
rivers are becoming increasingly seasonal.
In many areas the small streams run dry soon
after the monsoon as the water table drops further
and further below the surface. To this is
added serious problems caused by rapid surface
flow of water during the rains, which leads to
extensive floods with loss of life and property.
When we waste water, we do not realise that it
is affecting the lives of all of us in so many different
ways. It’s over use and misuse due to various activities that
waste water or cause pollution has led to a serious
shortage of potable drinking water. Thus
water conservation is linked closely with overall
human well being.
Traditional systems of collecting water and using
it optimally have been used in India for many
generations. These have been forgotten in the
recent past. Conserving water in multiple small
percolation tanks and ‘jheels’ was important in
As women had to carry water to their homes
over long distances, this was a time consuming
and laborious activity, thus the water could not
be wasted. Many homes had a kitchen garden
that was watered by the wastewater. Conservation
of water was done in traditional homes
through a conscious effort.
What can an individual do to control air pollution?
1) When you see a polluting vehicle take down
the number and send a letter to the Road
Transport Office (RTO) and the Pollution
Control Board (PCB).
2) If you observe an industry polluting air, inform
the Pollution Control Board in writing
and ascertain if action is taken.
3) Use cars only when absolutely necessary.
Walk or cycle as much as possible instead
of using fossil fuel powered vehicles.
4) Use public transport as far as possible, as
more people can travel in a single large vehicle
rather than using multiple small vehicles
which add to pollution.
5) Share a vehicle space with relatives and
friends. Carpools minimise the use of fossil
fuels.
6) Do not use air fresheners and other aerosols
and sprays which contain CFCs that deplete
the ozone layer.
7) Do not smoke in a public place. It is illegal
and endangers not only your own health
but also that of others.
8) Coughing can spread bacteria and viruses.
Use a handkerchief to prevent droplet in-
fection which is air borne. It endangers the
health of other people.
It is a citizen’s duty to report to the local authorities
such as the Collector or the Pollution
Control Board, and the press about offences
made by a polluter so that action can be taken
against the offender. It is equally important to
prevent and report to the authorities on cutting
down of trees, as this reduces nature’s ability to
maintain the carbon dioxide and oxygen levels.
preventing air pollution and preserving the quality
of our air is a responsibility that each individual
must support so that we can breathe air
that will not destroy our health.
What is 3-R principle?
The 3R principle of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,
should be followed in that order.
– Reduction is the best option. If we reduce
at source, there is a smaller chance of waste
generation and the pressure on our already
stretched natural resources is reduced.
– Reuse is the next best option, as the product
is reused in its current form without any
energy expended to convert it into a new
item.
– Recycling is the last option, as although it
converts a waste into a resource, it uses
energy to transform that resource into a
new useable product.
Thus by following the ‘Reduce, Reuse, Recycle’
principle, i.e. by reducing use at source, by reusing
and recycling whatever possible and finally
by proper disposal of residual waste, we
can cut down or the waste generated and ensure
that the minimal residual waste does not
harm our environment. This principle can be
followed by everyone, from an individual or an
industry to a whole country.
What can I do? You can follow the 3Rs principle
in the following ways:
1. Use only as much as you need, be it any resource
– water, food, paper, etc.
2. Next time you throw away something, think
about whether it is really a waste. If it is of no
use to you, could someone else use it?
Reuse rinse water to water your garden, etc.
Donate old clothes to the needy, instead of
throwing them away.
3. If you are sure the item is not usable in its
present form, can it be recycled? Paper, plastics,
glass, metal can all be recycled.
4. Segregate your waste into wet and dry garbage.
Wet garbage includes most kitchen
wastes. Most of this can be used for composting.
Most dry garbage is recyclable.
The amount of dry waste generated in your
household is an indicator of how well you are
following the 3Rs principle. A lot of dry waste
means you should go back to the ‘Reduce and
Reuse’ principles and try to follow them better.
5. Avoid the use of non-biodegradable materials
such as Styrofoam and certain types of plastics.
Although most plastics are recyclable, recycling
still takes up energy, which is another precious
resource not to be wasted. If thrown away as
waste, Styrofoam and plastics can take hundreds
of years to decompose.
6. Do not litter or throw garbage in public places.
Garbage and litter is a visual contaminant and
can cause diseases health problems. Proper disposal
of garbage is an important part of waste
management.
7. Be a conscious consumer and do not buy products
that are over packaged. Try choosing products
that are made from recycled material or
are organically grown.
Chipko movement (Andolan)
About 300 years ago, a ruler in Rajasthan decided
to fell ‘khejri’ trees in his State to create
lime. Local women led by a Bishnoi woman,
Amrita Devi, clung to the trees to prevent the
felling of the trees that formed the basis of
the scarce resources on which they were dependent.
The women were ruthlessly massacred.
It is said that the ruler later realised his
mistake. The story however has been remembered
and was revived in the 1970s when severe
tree felling for timber in the Himalayas
prompted local women, supported by people
such as Sunderlalji Bahuguna and Chandi
Prasad Bhat, led a people’s movement to prevent
deforestation by timber contractors. They
called their movement the ‘Chipko’ movement
in memory of the event during which women
had clung to their trees and given up their
lives. The movement followed the path the
300 Bishnoi women had taken three centuries
ago in Rajasthan.
Chipko is a movement primarily begun and
supported by local women in the hills of
Uttarakhand and Garhwal, where the women
have had to bear the brunt of deforestation.
They have not only realised that their fuelwood
and fodder resources have receded away from
their ‘resource use areas’ around their settlements
due to commercial timber extraction,
but that this has led to serious floods and loss
of precious soil.
Chipko activists have made long padyatras
across the Himalayas protesting against deforestation.
The movement has been highly
successful and has been primarily supported
by empowering local women’s groups who
are the most seriously affected segment of
society by deforestation. The movement has
proved to the world that the forests of the
hills are the life support systems of local communities
of immense value in terms of local
produce that is essential for the survival of local
people and that the forest has less quantifiable
but even more important ecological
services such as soil conservation and the maintenance
of the natural water regime of the
whole region.
The ability of local women to band themselves
together in the foothills of the Himalayas goes
back to the pre Independence days when
women such as Miraben, a disciple of Gandhiji,
moved to this region and understood that it
was the deforestation that led to floods and
devastation of villages in the valleys and in the
Gangetic plains below. They also appreciated
that substitutions of oak and other
broadleaved forests of the Himalayas by planting
fast growing pine for timber and resin was
an ecological and social disaster which reduced
the forest resources used by traditional hill
communities.
Arsenic in drinking water:
Arsenic in drinking-
water is a serious hazard to human health.
It has attracted much attention since its recognition
in the 1990s of its wide occurrence in wellwater
in Bangladesh. It occurs less frequently in
most other countries. The main source of arsenic
in drinking water is arsenic-rich rocks
through which the water has filtered. It may also
occur because of mining or industrial activity in
some areas. WHO has worked with other UN
organizations to produce a state-of-the-art review
on arsenic in drinking water.
Drinking water that is rich in arsenic leads to
arsenic poisoning or arsenicosis. Excessive concentrations
are known to occur in some areas.
The health effects are generally delayed and the
most effective preventive measure is supplying
drinking water which is free of arsenic. Arsenic
contamination of water is also due to industrial
processes such as those involved in mining, metal
refining, and timber treatment. Malnutrition
may aggravate the effects of arsenic on blood
vessels.
Water with high concentrations of arsenic if used
over 5 to 20 years, results in problems such as
colour changes on the skin, hard patches on the
palms and soles, skin cancer, cancers of the bladder,
kidney and lung, and diseases of the blood
vessels of the legs and feet. It may also lead to
diabetes, high blood pressure and reproductive
disorders.
Natural arsenic contamination occurs in Argentina,
Bangladesh, Chile, China, India, Mexico,
Thailand and the United States. In China (in the
Province of Taiwan) exposure to arsenic leads
to gangrene, known as ‘black foot disease’.
Long term solutions for prevention of arsenicosis
is based on providing safe drinking-water:
• Deeper wells are often less likely to be contaminated.
• Testing of water for levels of arsenic and
informing users.
• Monitoring by health workers – people need
to be checked for early signs of arsenicosis
– usually by observing skin problems in areas
where arsenic in known to occur.
• Health education regarding harmful effects
of arsenicosis and how to avoid them.
What are the measures to prevent and control cancer?
Cancer control is based on the prevention and
control of cancer by:
• Promotion and strengthening of comprehensive
national cancer control programs.
• Building international networks and partnerships
for cancer control.
• Promotion of organized, evidence-based
interventions for early detection of cervical
and breast cancer.
• Development of guidelines on disease and
program management.
• Advocacy for a rational approach to effective
treatments for potentially curable
tumours.
• Support for low-cost approaches to respond
to global needs for pain relief and palliative
care.
Prevention of cancer: Tobacco smoking is the
single largest preventable cause of cancer in the
world. It causes 80 to 90% of all lung cancer
deaths. Another 30% of all cancer deaths, especially
in developing countries include deaths
from cancer of the oral cavity, larynx, oesophagus
and stomach which are related to tobacco
chewing. Preventive measures include bans on
tobacco advertising and sponsorship, increased
tax on tobacco products, and educational programs
which are undertaken to reduce tobacco
consumption.
Dietary modification is an important approach
to cancer control. Overweight individuals and
obesity are known to be associated with cancer
of the oesophagus, colon, rectum, breast, uterus
and kidney. Fruit and vegetables may have a
protective effect against many cancers. Excess
consumption of red and preserved meat may
be associated with an increased risk of colorectal
cancer.
Infectious agents are linked with 22% of cancer
deaths in developing countries and 6% in
industrialized countries. Viral hepatitis B and C
cause cancer of the liver. Human papilloma virus
infection causes cancer of the cervix. The
bacterium Helicobacter pylori increases the risk
of stomach cancer. In some countries the parasitic
infection schistosomiasis increases the risk
of bladder cancer. Liver fluke increases the risk
of cancer of the bile ducts. Preventive measures
include vaccination and prevention of infection.
Excessive solar ultraviolet radiation increases the
risk of all types of cancer of the skin. Avoiding
excessive exposure to the sun, use of sunscreens
and protective clothing are effective preventive
measures. Asbestos is known to cause lung cancer.
Aniline dyes have been linked to bladder
cancer. Benzene can lead to leukaemia (blood
cancer). The prevention of certain occupational
and environmental exposure to several chemicals
is an important element in preventing cancer.
7.6 HIV/AIDSThe Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) causes
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
through contact with tissue fluids of infected
individuals, especially through sexual contact. As
it reduces an individual’s resistance to disease,
it causes infected individuals to suffer from a
large number of environment related diseases
and reduces the ability of infected individuals to
go about their normal lives. It affects their income
generation and/or their ability to utilise
natural resources. As more and more people are
affected, this disease will also have impacts on
our natural resource base, as utilisation patterns
change to unsustainable levels. The inability of
these patients to have the strength to access
natural resources also affects the outcome of
the disease process, as their overall health and
well being is likely to worsen the course of the
disease when their nutritional status suffers.
In sub Saharan Africa where the infection has
become highly prevalent, it is leading to great
suffering and worsening poverty. The capacity
of these patients to work for their usual sources
of income generation is lost. An increasing proportion
of the poor are affected. It is evident
that it is going to be increasingly difficult to
manage environments sustainably, as natural resources
on which the poor debilitated patients
depend continue to be degraded. Incomes lost
due to the stigma of HIV/AIDS must be met by
the sufferers by overexploiting their resource
base. People affected by the disease inevitably
try to get whatever they can from their natural
resource base as they are not in any position to
think of the long-term future. In Africa, this has
led to degradation of the ecosystem and an increase
of pressures from other impacts such as
overuse of medicinal plants and poaching for
wildlife. In South Africa, for example, people
have a mistaken belief that turtle eggs can cure
HIV/ AIDS, thus leading to the eggs being over
harvested. As males die of the disease, work on
agricultural land has to be taken over by already
overworked women and their children, affecting
land management and productivity. Providing
balanced diets and nutritional support for
these poverty stricken patients can be partially
addressed by better natural resource management
such as afforestation, access to clean water
and wholesome food.
HIV/AIDS seriously affects the patient’s working
environment. It creates an incorrect fear in
the minds of co-workers. It must be clearly understood
that AIDS is not spread by casual contact
during work. Patients have a right to
continue to work as before along with unaffected
individuals. As patients are unable to
continue their original hard labour related work,
7.7 WOMAN AND CHILD WELFARE
There are several environmental factors that are
closely linked to the welfare of women and children.
Each year, close to eleven million children
worldwide are estimated to have died from the
effects of disease and inadequate nutrition. Most
of these deaths are in the developing world. In
some countries, more than one in five children
die before they are 5 years old. Seven out of 10
of childhood deaths in developing countries can
be attributed to five main causes, or a combination
of them. These are pneumonia, diarrhoea,
measles, malaria and malnutrition.
Around the world, three out of every four children
suffer from at least one of these conditions.
The diagnosis of common childhood disease conditions
| Presenting complaint | Possible cause or associated condition |
|---|---|
Cough and/or fast breathing | Pneumonia Severe anaemia P. falciparum malaria |
Lethargy or unconsciousness | Cerebral malaria Meningitis Severe dehydration Very severe pneumonia |
| Measles rash | Pneumonia Diarrhoea Ear infection |
| “Very sick” young infant | Pneumonia Meningitis Sepsis |
FOREST FUNCTIONS
Watershed protection:
• Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water.
• Prevent flash floods and soil erosion.
• Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought.
Atmospheric regulation:
• Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration.
• Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth.
• Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
Erosion control:
• Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away).
Land bank:
• Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.
Local use – Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence –
(Consumptive use)
• Food – gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest.
• Fodder – for cattle.
• Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating.
• Poles – building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas.
• Timber – household articles and construction.
• Fiber – weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc.
• Sericulture – for silk.
• Apiculture – bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops.
• Medicinal plants – traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential
source for new modern drugs.
Market use – (Productive use)
• Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as a
source of income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people.
which are collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest
dwellers.
• Major timber extraction – construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber
extraction is done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues
in many of the forests of India and the world