Enlightenment, English & American Revolutions: Key Concepts
The Enlightenment
What is the Enlightenment?
The Enlightenment was a movement of intellectual development in eighteenth-century Europe, which questioned all the principles of the Old Regime. Key features included:
- Absolute faith in reason.
- Support for knowledge.
- Emphasis on education, progress, and tolerance.
- The ultimate goal of human life: happiness.
- Defense of freedom and equality.
The Philosophers of the Enlightenment
Locke and Newton: Influential thinkers of the era.
Montesquieu: Advocated the separation of powers.
Rousseau: Defended the social contract as a pact between citizens and states, emphasizing the principle of national sovereignty.
Voltaire: Defended the need for a parliament to limit the power of the king and reform the tax system.
The Encyclopedia
Directed by Diderot and D’Alembert, the Encyclopedia aimed to collect all the knowledge of the time. By 1751, there were 35 volumes.
Other Media
Salons: Meetings of thinkers and writers organized by a patron at their home, where they read letters, discussed current events, and developed new ideas.
Academies: Official societies that brought together writers, artists, philosophers, and scientists to discuss knowledge and facilitate its circulation.
Absolute Monarchy
The English Revolutions
In the Middle Ages, the power of the English monarchy was limited by Parliament, composed of nobles and clergy (Lords) and the bourgeoisie (Commons).
In the seventeenth century, a new dynasty tried to rule without parliamentary control, leading to a civil war between supporters of Parliament and the absolute monarchy. In 1649, King Charles I was executed, and a republic was proclaimed.
Oliver Cromwell, a promoter of political change, ruled until his death, after which Parliament restored the monarchy.
Charles II, the new king, had to accept the control of Parliament. In 1679, Parliament voted in favor of habeas corpus, guaranteeing individual freedoms and preventing arbitrary detention by the king.
In 1689, William of Orange was offered the crown. The new king swore the Bill of Rights, which limited the powers of the monarch and subjected some decisions to Parliament.
England was the first country to limit the power of the monarchy. The sovereign was conditioned by Parliament, which elected the prime minister from among its members. The executive and legislative branches were separated, and an independent judiciary was established.
The Despotism
Everything for the people, but without the people!
Political reforms were characterized by:
- Rationalization of state administration.
- Education reform.
- Modernization of agriculture.
- Development of manufacturing.
- Partial liberalization of production and trade.
It was not possible to reform the economy while keeping the estate system and absolute power intact.
The American Revolution
Member States of America
The thirteen English colonies established on the east coast of North America initiated the first uprising against a colonial power in the eighteenth century. This was the first example of a government founded on principles of equality and freedom.
The inhabitants of these colonies confronted the metropolis in defense of their interests and rights.
The American colonists disagreed with the fees and taxes imposed by the British. Since they had no representation in Parliament in London, they declared their intention not to obey laws that had not been passed by their representatives.
On July 4, 1776, delegates from the thirteen colonies gathered in Philadelphia and wrote the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America.
The United States Constitution
Great Britain recognized the independence of the American territory in 1783, after the defeat of its forces. George Washington, who led the rebel army, was proclaimed the first President of the United States of America.
In 1787, the new American state drafted the first written constitution in history. The text ensured the separation and balance of powers, establishing a republican form of government and a federal structure.
The federal government was responsible for foreign affairs, defense, finance, and currency of the new country.
The Bill of Rights guarantees freedom of religion, press, speech, assembly, and the right to be tried by a jury.