English Stylistics: Linguistic Devices and Functional Styles

Posted on Jun 23, 2026 in English Studies

1. Stylistics and Its Subdivisions

Stylistics is a branch of general linguistics. It studies the principles and the effect of choosing and using language means for the purpose of transmitting thoughts and emotions under different conditions of communication.

Main objectives of stylistics:

  1. To investigate the inventory of special language media — expressive means and stylistic devices.
  2. To investigate certain types of texts distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication — functional styles.
  3. To study the aesthetic function of language, emotional coloring, and the individual manner of an author.

Subdivisions of stylistics:

  1. Lexical stylistics
  2. Grammatical stylistics – studies stylistic functions of grammar, including:
    • Morphological stylistics (transposition of verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, numeral);
    • Syntactical stylistics (inversion, repetition, parallelism, etc.).
  3. Phonetic stylistics
  4. Functional stylistics – studies functional styles of language.
  5. Expressive stylistics – studies expressive means and stylistic devices that make speech vivid and emotional.
  6. Stylistics of decoding – studies how the reader perceives and interprets a text.
  7. Linguostylistics – studies the language system itself (neutral vs. stylistically coloured units).
  8. Literary stylistics – studies the individual style of a writer, literary trends, genres, and the composition of literary works.
  9. Text stylistics – studies the most effective ways of producing texts belonging to different styles, substyles, and genres.
  10. Comparative stylistics – studies stylistic resources of two or more languages.

2. The Concept of Style

The word “style” comes from the Latin stilus (a stick for writing on wax tablets). It has many meanings. Different scholars have understood it differently.

The main points of view:

  1. Style as embellishment: Style was seen as beautiful words that decorate simple thought.
  2. Style as the man himself (Buffon): Style reflects the writer’s personality and character.
  3. Style as deviation from the norm (Saintsbury): The norm is a neutral, predictable way of using language. Deviation is when a writer breaks the norm (e.g., unusual word order). The deviation must be motivated, otherwise it is a mistake.
  4. Style as choice (Chatman): Style is a product of individual choices among linguistic possibilities.
  5. Style as a set of recurrent features (Winter): If a writer always uses the same short sentences or metaphors (e.g., Hemingway’s short sentences).

3. Stylistic Function and Stylistic Information

Stylistic information is the additional meaning conveyed beyond the logical content of a message. It includes emotions, evaluation, and expressiveness coloring.

  • Logical information: “It is raining.”
  • Stylistic information: “Oh, not again this awful rain!” (irritation, negative evaluation, colloquial style).

Components of stylistic information:

  1. Emotional — expresses feelings (joy, anger, irritation).
  2. Evaluative — expresses approval or disapproval.
  3. Expressive — intensifies, making speech vivid.

Stylistic function is the role a linguistic element plays to create a stylistic effect. In simple words: WHY do we use it?

Examples of stylistic functions:

  • Irony → function of mockery.
  • Repetition → function of emphasis.
  • Inversion → function of highlighting an important word.
  • Metaphor → function of creating imagery.

4. Stylistic Relevance of the Norm

The norm is the recognized, received standard of language regarded as a pattern to be followed.

  1. The norm serves as a background. Without the norm, we would not notice deviations. The norm is the “zero point” — neutral, predictable, and automatic.
  2. Deviation must be motivated. An unmotivated deviation is a mistake.
  3. The norm is historical and flexible. It changes over time. What was once a deviation can become the norm (e.g., “the leg of a table” is now neutral).

5. Functional Style, Individual Style, and Idiolect

Functional style is a system of interrelated language means that serves a definite aim in communication. It is a socially recognized subsystem of the literary language (e.g., scientific, official, newspaper). Functional styles appear mainly in the written variety of language.

Individual style is a unique combination of language units, expressive means, and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer. It makes the writer’s works easily recognizable. Individual style is based on a deliberate choice of language means.

Idiolect is the habitual speech patterns of an individual (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, favorite words). It is unconscious and exists in every person.

Similarities:

  • All three are about using language.
  • All three can exist in the same person at the same time.
  • All three change over time.

Differences (Who does it belong to?):

  • Functional style: Society or a group.
  • Individual style: A specific writer.
  • Idiolect: A specific person.

6. The Concept of Imagery and Tropes

Imagery is the ability of language to create pictures, sounds, and sensations in the reader’s imagination. Instead of a dry fact, we create a vivid image.

  • Without imagery: “He is very angry.”
  • With imagery: “He is a real beast.” (you imagine something aggressive).

Structure of an image:

  1. What is described (the object or person): Tenor (e.g., man).
  2. What we compare it with (the image we use): Vehicle (e.g., beast).
  3. What they have in common (the common feature): Ground (e.g., aggression, strength).

Tropes are words or expressions used in a figurative meaning to create an image. Tropes are the main “tools” for imagery.

Classification of tropes (5 main types):

  1. Metaphor: Hidden comparison. One object is called by the name of another. “Life is a game”.
  2. Metonymy: Substitution based on a real-life connection. “I drank two glasses” (instead of “two glasses of juice”).
  3. Irony: Saying the opposite of what you mean; pretending to praise but actually mocking. “You are so clever!” (said to a foolish person).
  4. Hyperbole: Deliberate overstatement, exaggeration. “I’ve told you a thousand times”.
  5. Litotes: Deliberate understatement, often through double negation. “Not bad” (= very good).

How to distinguish metaphor from simile?

  • Simile uses words like “like” or “as”: “He is like a wolf”.
  • Metaphor does not use these words: “He is a wolf”. Metaphor is a compressed, hidden comparison.

7. Classifying Functional Styles

A functional style is a system of interrelated language means that serves a definite aim in communication.

Different approaches to classification:

I. R. Galperin’s classification:

  1. The belles-lettres style: poetry, emotive prose, drama.
  2. The publicistic style: oratory and speeches, the essay, journalistic articles.
  3. The newspaper style: brief news items, headlines, advertisements, the editorial.
  4. The scientific prose style: exact sciences, humanitarian sciences, popular scientific prose.
  5. The style of official documents: diplomatic documents, business documents.

I. V. Arnold’s classification:

  • Arnold does not single out the belles-lettres style as a separate functional style. She argues that fiction uses all other styles (scientific, colloquial, official) for its aesthetic purposes.
  • She distinguishes bookish styles (scientific, official, publicistic, newspaper) and the colloquial style as a separate style.

8. The Style of Official Documents

The style of official documents is a functional style used in the sphere of law, diplomacy, business, and military affairs.

Substyles of official documents:

  1. Diplomatic documents (treaties, conventions, notes, agreements).
  2. Legal documents (laws, codes, statutes, court decisions).
  3. Business documents (contracts, business letters, invoices).
  4. Military documents (orders, regulations, reports).

Main stylistic features:

  1. Conventionality of expression (clichés and set expressions). Each substyle has its own stereotyped phrases (e.g., in business letters: “Dear Sirs”).
  2. Absence of emotions (emotiveness): No imagery, no irony, no humor.
  3. Archaic words.
  4. Abbreviations and conventional symbols.
  5. Complex syntax (long sentences with many clauses).
  6. The use of words in their logical dictionary meaning: No room for contextual meanings or simultaneous realization of two meanings.

9. The Scientific Prose Style

The scientific prose style is a functional style used in research, education, and science.

Substyles of scientific prose:

  1. Exact sciences (physics, chemistry, mathematics) — formulas, diagrams, calculations.
  2. Humanitarian sciences (linguistics, history, philosophy) — terms, quotations, footnotes.
  3. Popular scientific prose (for the general reader) — simpler language, explanations of terms, occasional imagery.

Main stylistic features:

  1. Logical sequence and objectivity: Ideas are presented in a strict logical order. The language is unemotional and impersonal.
  2. Abundant use of terms (specialized and general scientific).
  3. Impersonal constructions and passive voice: Used to achieve objectivity.
  4. The “plural of modesty” (using “we” instead of “I”).
  5. Complex sentences and a developed system of connectives.
  6. Use of non-verbal elements (in exact sciences): Tables, graphs, diagrams, formulas.

10. Stylistic Features of News Items

News items are the core of the newspaper style. Their main function is to inform the reader quickly, objectively, and concisely.

Main linguo-stylistic features:

  1. Structure: the Inverted Pyramid. The Lead (first 1-2 sentences) contains the most important information, answering the 5 W’s and H: Who? What? When? Where? Why? and How? The middle contains important details, and the end contains less important information.
  2. Short sentences and short paragraphs: One paragraph usually contains one sentence, representing one main fact.
  3. Vocabulary features:
    • Neutral and common literary vocabulary.
    • Special political and economic terms: president, election.
    • Non-term political vocabulary: public, people, progressive.
    • Newspaper clichés: vital issue, informed sources, overwhelming majority.
  4. Quotations (direct and indirect): Used to show objectivity and to avoid responsibility for facts reported.
  5. Passive voice: Used when the agent is unknown or unimportant.
  6. Attributive noun chains: Several nouns used as adjectives to save space.

11. The Publicistic Style

The publicistic style is a functional style used in speeches, essays, and journalistic articles. It combines logical argumentation with emotional appeal.

Substyles of the publicistic style:

  1. Oratory and speeches: Political speeches, parliamentary debates, sermons, court speeches. This is the most emotional substyle.
  2. The essay: A literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic, or literary subjects.
  3. Journalistic articles: Feature articles in newspapers, magazines, and journals. More informative than the essay but still evaluative.

Main stylistic features:

  1. Combination of logic and emotion: Facts are presented with emotional language to persuade.
  2. The use of the first person singular (I): Shows a personal, subjective approach.
  3. Expanded use of connectives: Facilitates the process of grasping the correlation of ideas.
  4. Abundant use of emotive words: Similes, metaphors, and other stylistic devices.
  5. Direct address to the audience: “Ladies and gentlemen”, “My Lords”.
  6. Use of personal pronouns “you” and “we” to create unity with the audience.
  7. A series of personal and witty comments rather than a finished argument.

12. The Belles-Lettres Style

The belles-lettres style is a functional style used in fiction: poetry, emotive prose, and drama. Its main function is aesthetic-cognitive.

Substyles of the belles-lettres style:

  1. Poetry: The most compact and image-rich. Based on rhythm, rhyme, and phonetic arrangement.
  2. Emotive prose: Combines the author’s monologue and the characters’ dialogue.
  3. Drama: Almost entirely dialogue. The author’s speech is only in stage directions. The language is stylized.

Main common features of the belles-lettres style:

  1. Genuine imagery — achieved by purely linguistic devices (original, not clichéd).
  2. The use of words in contextual and in more than one dictionary meaning — polysemy is actively used.
  3. A vocabulary that reflects the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena.
  4. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax — the author’s individual style.
  5. The introduction of typical features of colloquial language — fully in drama, to a lesser degree in emotive prose, and slightly in poetry.

13. The Style of Advertising

The style of advertising is a functional style (or a substyle of the publicistic/newspaper style) whose primary aim is persuasion.

Main stylistic features of advertising:

  1. Extreme brevity and compression: Every word must be effective. Elliptical and telegraphic sentences are common: “Get it now”.
  2. High emotional tension and positivity: Uses emotionally charged words with positive connotations: “amazing”, “unique”, “new!”, “wonderful”.
  3. Sound play:
    • Rhyme: “Washing machines live longer with Calgon”.
    • Alliteration: “Beanz Meanz Heinz”.
  4. Imperative mood and direct address: Commands and questions addressing the consumer directly.
    • “Buy now!”, “Just do it!”, “Are you in good hands?”.
  5. Figurative language: Uses metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and decomposed set phrases creatively.
  6. Slogan (tagline): A memorable catchphrase that encapsulates the product’s identity and is repeated over time.
    • “I’m lovin’ it” (McDonald’s), “Just do it” (Nike).

14. Phonetic Devices: Sound and Meaning

Phonetic stylistic devices are used to create a musical effect, reinforce meaning through sound, and evoke emotions.

1. Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of several words in close succession.

Functions: Creates rhythm and musicality; can express a definite feeling (e.g., the repetition of [s] can produce a whispering effect).

2. Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds in close succession.

  • Example: “Why don’t you move to the moon?” — the [u:] sound is prolonged and can sound sad or serious.

Functions: Creates internal rhyming and harmony; different vowels evoke different feelings (e.g., [i:] can sound joyful or bright; [u:] can sound somber or sorrowful).

3. Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sound imitates their meaning.

Two types of onomatopoeia:

  1. Direct onomatopoeia: Words that inherently imitate sounds (e.g., buzz, bang, cuckoo, ding-dong, meow, roar, splash, hiss).
  2. Indirect onomatopoeia: A combination of sounds creates an echo of the sense, even if the words themselves are not onomatopoeic.
    • “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” — the [s] and [r] sounds imitate the rustling of the curtain.

Functions: Brings the described scene to life, making it more vivid and auditory for the reader.

15. Rhyme, Rhythm, and Meter

These are sound devices that are particularly important for poetry, though they also appear in prose.

1. Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations in words, usually at the end of verse lines.

Types of rhyme:

  1. Full rhyme: The last stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical (e.g., love — above).
  2. Double rhyme: Two syllables rhyme (e.g., weather — together).
  3. Triple rhyme.
  4. Broken rhyme: One word rhymes with a combination of words (e.g., “upon her honour” — “won her”).
  5. Eye rhyme: The letters are identical but the pronunciation is different (e.g., love — prove).

Functions of rhyme:

  • Consolidating function — chaining lines together, breaking the line.
  • Creates musicality and rhythm.
  • Makes poetry easier to remember.

2. Rhythm

Rhythm is the regular alternation of contrasting elements (stressed/unstressed, long/short, high/low) within a speech flow.

  • In poetry: Rhythm is based on the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is the actual sound pattern we hear, which may deviate from the ideal meter.
  • In prose: Rhythm is less regular and is based on the repetition of syntactical structures (parallelism, enumeration, repetition).

Functions of rhythm:

  • Expresses feelings and emotions (anxiety, tension, calm).
  • Can reflect movements, atmosphere, or behavior (e.g., galloping horses, marching soldiers).
  • Organizes the utterance.

3. Meter

Meter is the ideal, abstract pattern of rhythm. It is the plan of the verse, an ideal scheme.

16. Graphical Stylistic Means

Graphical stylistic means are non-linguistic but highly effective tools used in written texts. They replace intonation, volume, pauses, and other features of spoken language.

1. Punctuation marks:

  1. Exclamation mark (!): Shows strong emotion, surprise, irony, or a command.
  2. Question mark (?): Used in rhetorical questions.
  3. Dash (—): Marks emotional pauses, a sudden break.
  4. Suspension marks (…): Mark a pause, understatement, or hesitation.
  5. Inverted commas (“ ”): Show irony or sarcasm (“scare quotes”).
  6. Full stop (.) / comma (,): Can indicate detachment (a secondary member becomes independent).

2. Typographic techniques:

  1. Italics: Emphasis, highlighting an important word or phrase, often for irony (“I did weep most terribly”).
  2. Capital letters: Shouting, very loud voice (“Well, she HAS been stuffing you!”).
  3. Spacing out: (letters with spaces) Emphasis, slow or emotional speech (“Well, she h a s been stuffing you.”).
  4. Multiplication of letters: Emotional stretching of a sound (“N-no!”).
  5. Bold type: Attracts attention, emphasis. Used in advertising and headlines.

3. Graphon (intentional misspelling):

This is a deliberate violation of the graphic form of a word to reflect its authentic pronunciation. It shows a character’s education, social status, local accent, foreign accent, or physical defects.

  • Examples: “gal” instead of “girl”; “dat” instead of “that”.

Functions of graphons:

  • Speech characterization of a character.
  • Creating local or social color, humor, or irony.

17. Morphological Means: Verbs and Numerals

Transposition is the use of morphological forms in unusual grammatical meanings.

Verb Transposition

  1. The present tense forms refer to past events: I was just to go to bed when all of a sudden there’s a knock at the door.
  2. The continuous aspect instead of the expected common aspect: Are you being funny?
  3. The Present Simple is used instead of the Continuous form:
    • Performative: I warn you the gun is loaded.
    • An exclamation with an initial directional adverb: Off they go!
    • Sports commentary: Jones heads the ball into the net!
    • Demonstration: I place the fruit in the blender, then pour out the liquid.

Numeral Transposition

  1. Numerals used to achieve the effect of exaggeration: I told you thousands of times!
  2. Numerals are often substantivized: Those three are again in trouble.

18. Adjectives, Adverbs, and Word Formation

Transposition is the use of morphological forms in unusual grammatical meanings.

Adjective Transposition

  1. The play with the comparative and superlative degree forms as well as the intensification of non-gradable adjectives: He is the most married man. He is very dead.
  2. A noun substitutes for an adjective: the dark of a girl.
  3. Usage of occasional compound adjectives: trigger-happy, girl-crazy or simple sentences: She said in an “I-don’t-think-you’re-being-very-sensitive” sort of voice.

Adverb Transposition

  1. The adverb “now” in scientific prose performs the function of a connective element (= “итак”).
  2. A compound noun phrase can be transferred into an adverbial one to perform a stylistically charged function: “Oh, yes,” said he matter-of-factly.

Stylistic Potential of Word Formation (affixes and models):

  • -ish: Often carries a negative or critical connotation (e.g., childish, bookish, womanish).
  • -ard, -ster, -aster, -eer: Negative evaluation (e.g., drunkard, gangster, poetaster, profiteer).
  • Anti-: Opposition (can form new words, e.g., anti-hero, anti-novel, anti-trend).

19. Morphological Means: Nouns

Transposition is the use of morphological forms in unusual grammatical meanings.

Noun Transposition

  1. Abstract nouns used in the plural become more concrete and vivid: silences.
  2. Material nouns in the plural create the effect of imagery and expressiveness: waters.
  3. Proper names used in the plural as class nouns: Stop mentioning all these Stephens as if they really mattered!

20. Morphological Means: Pronouns

Transposition is the use of morphological forms in unusual grammatical meanings. Pronoun transposition involves using pronouns in unusual meanings or with unexpected referents. This creates expressiveness, emotion, or stylistic coloring.

Pronoun Transposition

  1. Archaic forms create an elevated style: you → thee, thy, thyself, thine.
  2. The pronoun “you” is used in imperative sentences: Don’t you worry, Miss.
  3. In scientific prose, “we” is used to show that the author respects all the previous knowledge they have used: We came to the conclusion that…

21. Metaphor, Metonymy, and Irony

Metaphor

Metaphor is a deliberate use of a word in two meanings: dictionary + contextual. It is used for expressiveness, expressing the idea more vividly and revealing the author’s emotional evaluation. The basis for such use is a vague similarity of notions: This journalist is a shark.

  • Noun metaphor: England has two eyes, Oxford and Cambridge.
  • Adjective metaphor: friendly trees.
  • Verb metaphor: The night whispered to him.
  • Adverb metaphor: The home was telling him sorrowfully.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a case in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing.

According to the degree of originality:

  1. Trite: the crown, the bench, the grave.
  2. Original: Reveals an unexpected substitution of one word for another.

Irony

Irony is based on the interplay of two meanings, but the meaning that is born in context is the opposite of the dictionary meaning of the word. The function is to convey a negative meaning or create a humorous effect.

22. Epithet and Oxymoron

Epithet

An epithet is an attributive (or adverbial) word or phrase used to characterize an object so as to give an individual perception and evaluation of some features.

Structurally:

  1. Simple: The room was tired and uncaring.
  2. Compound: Apple-faced woman.
  3. Two-step: A marvelously radiant smirk.
  4. Phrase: a-never-tell-me-about-it smile.
  5. Reversed: the devil of a job (two nouns linked by an “of”-phrase).

Semantically:

  1. Associated (expected feature): dark forest.
  2. Unassociated (unexpected characteristic): a heart-burning smile, voiceless sands.
  3. Fixed (a unit that doesn’t lose its poetic power): true love.

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash: silent scream, a low sky-scraper. Trite oxymora: awfully nice, terribly sorry (where the primary logical meaning is lost).

23. Antonomasia, Pun, and Zeugma

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is a stylistic device in which the proper name of a person who is famous for some of their features is used for a person having the same feature.

Types:

  1. Proper name used instead of a common noun: He’s the Napoleon of crime.
  2. Descriptive word/word-combination instead of a proper name: Mr. Know-it-all; The King of Pop.
  3. Speaking names: Becky Sharp.

Pun

A pun is a humorous use of a word realizing two meanings simultaneously, or the use of two words which sound the same or nearly the same. It is also called “word play”:

  • “Her cat is near the computer to keep an eye on the mouse.”
  • “I’m tired.” — “Me too.” — “Me three.”

Zeugma

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations (literal and transferred) to two adjacent words in the context: Sharing a menu and a life. He fished for compliments and trout. These devices are mainly used to create a humorous effect.

24. Simile, Hyperbole, and Periphrasis

Simile

A simile is based on likening two things that belong to different classes: He is as wise as Buddha. Formal elements are always used: like, as, such as, as if, seem, resemble, etc. It must not be confused with logical comparison (e.g., He is as wise as his grandfather).

Hyperbole

A hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement, exaggeration, or understatement of a feature intended to intensify some idea: When I was born I was so surprised that I couldn’t talk for a year and a half. Trite hyperboles: I’d give the world to see him.

Periphrasis

Periphrasis is a roundabout way used to name some object or phenomenon, giving a descriptive name that mentions some insignificant features of this thing and intensifies these features by giving the thing a corresponding name: He Who Must Not Be Named.

It can be:

  • Logical: the author of Hamlet (= Shakespeare).
  • Figurative: to tie the knot (= get married).
  • Euphemistic: to possess a vivid imagination (= to lie).

25. Stylistic Use of Set Expressions

Clichés

A cliché is a word or expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has been used too often: the patter of little feet.

Proverbs and Sayings

Proverbs and sayings are brief statements showing the accumulated life experience of the community. They presuppose a simultaneous application of two meanings: the face-value of the primary meaning and an extended meaning drawn from the context: An early bird catches the worm.

Epigrams

An epigram is a short, clever, amusing saying or poem: Everything I like is either illegal, immoral or fattening.

Quotations

A quotation is an exact repetition of a phrase from a book or speech used by way of authority, illustration, or proof. It comprises two meanings: the primary meaning and the applicative meaning (the one it acquires in the new context).

Allusion

An allusion is an indirect reference by word or phrase to a historical, literary, mythological, or biblical fact. It is based on the accumulated experience and knowledge of the writer, who presupposes a similar experience in the reader.

26. Inversion, Detachment, and Parenthesis

Inversion

Inversion is a violation of the fixed subject – predicate – object word order in the English language in order to give emotional coloring to one specific part of the sentence: Her I wanted to touch.

Detachment

Detachment is the placement of secondary members of the sentence separately from the word they logically refer to, giving more significance to the secondary member and making the written variety of language akin to the spoken one: She was gone. For good.

Parenthesis

Parenthesis (a type of detachment) is an explanatory phrase which interrupts a sentence without affecting its grammatical structure: She — although probably tired — came to see her.

27. Parallelism, Chiasmus, and Antithesis

Parallelism

Parallelism refers to cases of repetition of identical or similar syntactical structures in close succession: There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in.

Chiasmus

Chiasmus is reversed parallelism, used to break the monotony of parallel constructions: As high as we have mounted in delight, In our dejection do we sink as low.

Antithesis

Antithesis presents two contrasting ideas close to each other: A saint abroad and a devil at home. / Man proposes, God disposes.

28. Repetition, Enumeration, and Climax

Enumeration

Enumeration is a chain of words that display semantic homogeneity: They loved cheese, books and sunsets.

Repetition

Repetition aims at logical emphasis through the deliberate repetition of certain words.

Suspense

Suspense is a deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought that prepares the reader for the only logical conclusion of the utterance: Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand years ate their meat raw.

Climax

Climax (logical, emotional, quantitative) produces a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension: I’ll smash you, I’ll crumble you, I’ll powder you.

29. Linkage Devices and Structural Meaning

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of a connective in the place where it is expected to be, used to achieve a dynamic effect.

Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton is an intentional repetition of connectives before each component of the sentence. It serves a rhythmical function and emphasizes the simultaneousness of actions.

Gap-Sentence Link

Gap-sentence link is a way of connecting two sentences that are seemingly unconnected, leaving it to the reader to grasp the implied idea: She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy. It indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts.

Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question is an emphatic statement made in the form of a question. There is an interaction of two structural meanings realized simultaneously — that of a question and that of a statement.

Functions:

  • Make the pronouncement more categorical.
  • Convey various shades of emotive meanings (doubt, assertion, scorn, irony, etc.).

Litotes

Litotes is a device which involves a deliberate understatement and is based on the use of negative constructions (presupposing two negations).

Functions:

  1. Avoid sounding too categorical.
  2. Has a greater impact on a reader than affirmative constructions.

30. Colloquial Syntactical Devices

Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of one or more members of the sentence in written speech: There’s somebody wants to speak to you.

Functions:

  1. Adds emotional colouring.
  2. Changes the tempo of speech.

Question-in-the-Narrative

Question-in-the-narrative consists of the asking and answering of a question by one person (usually the author).

Functions:

  1. Capture the reader’s attention.
  2. Give the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader.

Represented Speech

Represented speech is a blend of direct and indirect speech, or a combination of the speech of the character and the author’s speech: And the first thing she saw outside the house was her father’s car. He! What had he come for? Why did people pester her?