English Language History: From Old English to Global Spread
History of the English Language
Old English (5th-11th Century)
Following the Roman legions leaving Britannia, the invasion of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes resulted in a language mixture. Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, emerged. The first North Sea crossing led to fragmented English with variations. Borrowings from Celtic languages, influences of Latin, and Viking invasions (8th-11th centuries) contributed to its development. A written standard based on West Saxon emerged.
Middle English (1100-1500)
The Battle of Hastings (1066) and the Norman invasion introduced French as the language of the new upper classes, creating diglossia. The second crossing involved the conquest of Ireland (Henry II, 1764), with French and English emigration, though English did not spread widely.
Early Modern English (1550-1700)
A new standard emerged, and French influence waned. Initially, it was primarily written, with oral use developing later (16th-18th centuries). Standardization shifted from spoken dialects to a primordial entity from which other dialects deviated.
Modern English (1500-Onwards)
Exploration and colonization led to the spread of English internally (Scotland, Wales, Ireland) and externally. In Ireland, new English migrations and economic control led to a language shift from the 18th century. Wales saw the imposition of English from the Norman period, formalized by the Tudors, with real spread in the 19th century. Scotland followed a similar pattern. Northumbrian English was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, leading to Scots as a national language. English was introduced to the Scottish Highlands in the mid-18th century as a second language, gradually replacing Gaelic.
The Third Crossing and Global Expansion
The term “diaspora” is associated with the third crossing, linked to external colonization in the 16th century. US English rose to a co-standard position with Southern British English. Globalization propelled US English as a rival in EFL territories. Historians distinguish between “colonies of settlement” (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa) and “colonies of exploitation” (parts of Africa and Asia).
ESL Territories and Creole Languages
Prototypical ESL territories saw the rise of pidgins. Large-scale population displacements led to the emergence of Creole languages. “Protectorates” (Botswana, Lesotho, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq) represent an intermediate stage between ESL and EFL. The spread of the English language, rather than speakers, is seen in postcolonial contexts (China, former Soviet Union).
The Three-Circle Model of World Englishes
Comments on the Diagram
The three circles represent types of spread, patterns of acquisition, and functional allocation of English in diverse cultural contexts.
- Inner Circle: First diaspora, ENL (L1) countries, “norm-providing”.
- Outer Circle: Second diaspora, ESL (L2) countries, “norm-developing”.
- Expanding Circle: Fourth crossing, EFL countries, “norm-dependent”.
Problems with this Model
The model is based on geography and history rather than on how speakers identify with and use English. An increasing number of speakers in the Expanding Circle use English for a wide range of purposes. English is increasingly used as a medium of instruction in European and Asian schools and universities. There is often a grey area between Inner and Outer Circles, with some Outer Circle countries having English as an L1 for many. There is also a grey area between Outer and Expanding Circles, with transitions from EFL to ESL status. It is difficult to distinguish L1, L2, and L3 in multilingual countries. The model struggles to define speakers by their proficiency in English. The situation is not uniform within each circle. The term “Inner Circle” implies a central influence that is declining.