English Language History and Development
Questionnaire 1: Origins and Early Development of English
The Spread of English
Number of Native English Speakers
Approximately 400 million people speak English as their first language.
Early Settlers in England
Various tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, settled in England.
Ancient Languages Influencing English
Besides Latin, English has been influenced by Sanskrit, Greek, and Old English.
Population Growth in England
The island of England was populated around the 5th century.
Educational and Colonial Influences
Establishment of Universities
The renowned universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded in 1209.
Colonial Powers and Their Motivations
Besides Britain, countries like Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands became colonial powers, driven by factors such as naval power and economic expansion.
Pronunciation and Language Change
Received Pronunciation (RP)
RP, often associated with the Queen’s English, is a standard accent of British English.
Origins of Old English
Old English emerged when Anglo-Saxon England was integrated into the Church of Rome.
Impact of the Norman Conquest
The Norman Conquest significantly influenced handwriting.
Early Newspapers
The first newspaper in London appeared in 1621.
Technological Advancements and Book Availability
The development of parchment, vellum, paper, and printing made books more accessible.
Types of Language Change
The three main types of language change are structural, social, and functional.
Questionnaire 2: Morphology and Phonology
Morphological Concepts
Another Term for Morphology
Inflection is another term for morphology.
Function of Lexical Morphemes
Lexical morphemes convey categories and lack grammatical relations.
Sound Classification
Velar Stop Sounds
Examples of velar stop sounds include /k/ (as in “koch”) and /g/ (as in “get”).
Voiceless Fricative Sound
An example of a voiceless fricative sound is /f/ (as in “few”).
Historical Sound Changes
The Great Hiatus
The Great Hiatus refers to a period of interrupted written English production.
Middle English Pronunciation
In Middle English, the third person singular ending was -th instead of -s.
Old English Moods
Old English had three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
The Great Vowel Shift
The Great Vowel Shift involved changes in vowel pronunciation, making some vowels sound different.
Monophthongization
Monophthongization is the process where two sounds merge into one, often due to one sound being stronger.
Language References in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Influential Language Books
Ben Jonson’s “English Grammar” (1640) and Tom Sheridan’s “A General Dictionary of the English Language” (1780) helped people understand the language during this period.
Stress and Accent
Stress refers to the emphasis placed on a syllable, while accent is the distinctive pronunciation of a particular group of speakers.
Loss of Postvocalic R
When the first vowel is stressed, the second vowel may disappear, resulting in the loss of postvocalic r.
Questionnaire 3: Syntax and Verb Characteristics
Noun Phrase Components
Head of a Noun Phrase
The head of a noun phrase can be a noun, pronoun, or name.
Prototypical Modifier
Adjectives are the prototypical modifiers.
Typical Finite Past Modifier
Relative clauses are typical finite past modifiers.
Syntactic and Verbal Concepts
Syntax
Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences.
Tense
Tense indicates the time of an action or event, expressed through verb forms.
Aspect
Aspect describes the nature of an action or event, such as whether it is completed or ongoing.
Mood
Mood conveys the speaker’s attitude or intention.
Voice
Voice describes the relationship between the action and the participants, such as active or passive.
Clausal Constituents
Agent, Subject, Recipient, Direct Object, Theme, Indirect Object
These terms refer to the roles that nouns or pronouns play in a sentence.
Latin Cases
Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative, Vocative
Latin cases indicate the grammatical function of nouns and pronouns.
Questionnaire 4: Vocabulary and Lexical Structure
Reference to Extra-Linguistic Reality
Lexemes
Lexemes are the basic units of meaning in a language, used to refer to real-world entities.
Linguistic Variation
Stratification
Stratification refers to the different ways language varies based on social factors.
Reasons for Borrowing Words
Language Enrichment and Expansion
Borrowing words can strengthen a language, enrich its vocabulary, and expand its expressive capabilities.
Lexical Structures and Grammar
Characteristics of Grammar
Grammar is characterized by its systematic structure, rule-governed nature, and predictability.
Vocabulary Expansion
Word Formation
Word formation is a major means of expanding vocabulary.
Middle English Vocabulary Contributions
French, Latin, and Scandinavian Influences
English vocabulary in the Middle English period was influenced by French, Latin, and Scandinavian languages.
Semantic Relationships
Hyponymy, Antonymy, Complementarity, Reversative
These terms describe different types of relationships between words based on their meanings.
Word Formation Categories
Compounding, Prefixation, Suffixation, Zero Derivation
These are the major categories of word formation processes.
Acronyms in Modern English
Examples of Acronyms
Commonly used acronyms include BSE, EU, HIV, and CD.
Importance of Vocabulary Study
Reflection of External History
Studying vocabulary provides insights into political, cultural, and linguistic changes.
Questionnaire 5: Standardization of English
West Saxon and Standardization
Rise of West Saxon
West Saxon gained prominence in the standardization of written English.
End of West Saxon Hegemony
West Saxon’s linguistic dominance ended around the middle of the 11th century.
Standardization Process
Beginning of Standardization
The standardization process began primarily in the 18th century.
Early Products of Standardization
Dictionaries were among the first products of the standardization process.
Dialects and Standardization
Structural Resemblance of Dialects
Dialects share a structural resemblance to each other.
Milroy’s Definition of Standardization
According to Milroy, standardization involves the suppression of optional variability in language.
Printing and Codification
William Caxton’s Printing Press
William Caxton established his printing press in Westminster.
Codification Stage
The next stage of standardization, codification, involved using Latin as a reference point.
Prescription and Common Core Vocabulary
Prescription Stage
The prescription stage, marked by works like Lowth’s “Short Introduction to English Grammar”, aimed to establish rules for correct usage.
Germanic Element in English Vocabulary
The Germanic element forms a significant part of the common core of English vocabulary.
Questionnaire 6: Onomastics and Proper Names
Study of Proper Names
Onomastics
Onomastics is the study of proper names.
Characteristics of Proper Names
Morphosyntactic Definiteness
Proper names are typically morphosyntactically definite, but most in English lack a definite article.
Patronymic Names
Origin of Patronymic Names
Patronymic names are derived from the father’s name.
Middle English Names
French and Continental West Germanic Influences
Typical English names in the Middle English period were influenced by French and Continental West Germanic sources.
Shakespeare’s Influence on Names
Shakespeare popularized names like Jessica and Cordelia.
Hypocoristics
Pet Names and Nicknames
Hypocoristics are pet names or nicknames, often abbreviated forms of names.
Surnames and Classification
Surnames Derived from Locations
Examples of surnames derived from locations include Newhouse, Greenstreet, and De Pisa.
Classification of Surnames
Surnames can be classified into four categories: patronymic/matronymic, geographical/toponymic, hypocoristic, and occupational.
Challenges in Onomastics
Ambiguity of First Element
Determining whether the first element of a word is a personal name or a lexical word can be challenging.
Questionnaire 7: Dialects and Sociolinguistics
Linguistic Atlas of Late Medieval English (LALME)
LALME Project
LALME is a linguistic atlas that documents the dialects of late medieval English.
Sound Change and Written Language
Exceptionlessness of Sound Change
The principle of Ausnahmslosigkeit der Laugesetze states that sound changes occur without exceptions.
Challenges in Studying Written Language
Studying written language can be difficult due to the overrepresentation of texts produced by upper-class men.
Manuscripts and Dialects
Well-Known Manuscripts
Notable manuscripts include the Vercelli Book, Exeter Book, Beowulf manuscript, and Junius manuscript.
Major Dialects
Four well-marked dialects are Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish.
Dialectal Variations
Meaning of “Shire”
The ending -shire in words like Leicestershire and Yorkshire means “county.”
Halliwell’s Dictionary
Halliwell’s Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words (1847) documents dialectal variations.
Sociolinguistics and Modern English
Importance of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics has introduced new methods for studying language variation and a wider range of speakers.
English and Other Languages
Relationship between English and Welsh/Irish Dialects
English has become the dominant language, with local dialects of Welsh and Irish being subordinate.
British Black English (BBE)
BBE is a variety of English spoken by descendants of Caribbean migrants in Britain.
Questionnaire 8: American English
Past Participle Usage
“Gotten” in American English
The past participle “gotten” is more common in American English.
New England Settlement
Puritan Settlers
Around 21,000 Puritans from East Anglia settled in Massachusetts between 1629 and 1640.
Linguistic Diversity in Manhattan
In 1644, Manhattan was home to speakers of 16 languages.
Early Settlements and Colonies
First Settlement
The first settlement was Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607.
The Thirteen Colonies
The thirteen colonies were Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
Population Growth
The population of the thirteen states reached 3.9 million by 1790.
Pronunciation and Usage
Webster’s American Dictionary (1828)
Webster’s American Dictionary promoted American spelling preferences, such as -or endings and the omission of u in words like color.
Prescriptivism in the 19th Century
Prescriptivism, which emphasizes rules and correctness, was the basis for describing usage in the 19th century.
Spanish Influence and Population Growth
Spanish Loanwords
Spanish has contributed significantly to American English vocabulary.
Population Growth in the US
The US population grew from 75 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000.
Questionnaire 9: The Future of English
Fragmentation and Change
Potential for Fragmentation
English may undergo fragmentation into a family of languages due to ongoing changes.
Influence of Fashion
Fashion plays a role in influencing language change.
Emerging Varieties of English
Singlish
Singlish is a hybrid of English, Chinese, and Malay spoken in Singapore.
Scots
Scots has gained recognition as a standard variety of English.
Euro English
Euro English is a common form of English emerging from contact with German, French, and Greek.