English Language Essentials: Grammar, Cohesion, & Paragraphs

Posted on Sep 18, 2025 in English Studies

Relative Pronouns and Determiners Explained

Essential Relative Words and Their Functions

What: Refers to a person, thing, or place. It remains unchanged.
Who/Whom: Used exclusively for persons. “Who” is for the subject, “Whom” for the object.
Which: Used for things or animals. Does not change form based on gender or number.
Where: Functions as an adverb, replacing a noun that indicates a place.
How much: Semantically equivalent to “everything that.”
How many: Semantically equivalent to “all that” (e.g., “all the items that”).
Whose: A possessive relative pronoun indicating ownership or belonging.

Lexical Cohesion Strategies

Techniques for Textual Unity

Repetition

One lexical item is used to refer to the same entity.

Example: He likes to read. Reading is his favorite occupation.

Synonymy

Using synonymous forms to refer to the same entity.

Example: Yesterday I saw a movie. The film, recently released in Chile, was by Scorsese.

Hypernymy

Hypernyms are used to maintain reference identity, where a specific item is replaced by a more general term that includes it.

Example: He loves his dog. He says the animal makes him happy.

Ellipsis

Cohesion is also established by the absence or omission of linguistic elements which, though not explicitly present in the text, are necessary for assigning meaning.

Example: Juan wrote. [He] is very concerned about his retirement.

Functions of Language

Understanding Communication Roles

Emotive Function: Sender

Expresses the sender’s feelings or attitudes.

Examples: Oh, what a headache! How cold it is! I’m so tired!

Conative Function: Receiver

Aims to influence the receiver’s behavior.

Examples: Rosa, do not jump the wall. Joseph, cut the grass. Do you have permission to go to the party?

Metalinguistic Function: Code

Focuses on language itself, clarifying or defining terms.

Example: How do you spell the word “laziness”?

Note: Paraphrasing an idea means expressing it in other terms.

Phatic Function: Contact or Channel

Establishes, maintains, or closes communication channels.

Examples: Good morning, Miss. How are you? We were talking about… As I said…

Poetic Function: Message

Emphasizes the aesthetic qualities of the message itself.

Example: Sad and lonely, wandering in my close solitude, where only shadows and sorrows sheltered me when…

Referential Function: Context

Conveys information about the context or reality.

Examples: This coffee is very sweet. There is no bread in the supermarket.

Paragraph Structures and Their Purposes

Crafting Effective Written Content

Descriptive Paragraphs

A descriptive paragraph uses vivid language to evoke the motor and sensory capacities of a human being. It creates an image for readers, appealing to their sensory receptors. Through a descriptive paragraph, an author uses all their senses to outline the attributes of perceived objects and events, allowing readers to experience them through words.

Narrative Paragraphs

A narrative paragraph is intended to relate the sequence of certain events. Everything that happens in time and space to something or someone is expressed through narrative paragraphs. Its purpose is for the reader/receiver to understand a cause and effect, a beginning and an end, a source and destination. Through narrative paragraphs, readers can interpret sequences, the evolution of an issue or problem, the development of an event, the consequences of certain actions, or the results of combined conditions.

Expository Paragraphs: Developing a Theme

This type of paragraph, based on a main idea, develops secondary content such as arguments and supporting statements. It explains, clarifies, gives details, or illustrates the main claim. Expository paragraphs are common in all forms of writing.

Classification or Ordering Paragraphs

A classification or ordering paragraph, based on a main idea, organizes secondary ideas in a predetermined order (e.g., chronological, from highest to lowest, or from most important to least important). It is widely used when describing a process or sequence.

Cause and Effect Paragraphs

These paragraphs establish how or why events occur, exploring their causes and effects.

Frequently used words:

For causes: because, as a result of, due to.
For effects: therefore, consequently, thus, if…then.

Examples:

A young man with high alcohol intake (cause) decided to drive his father’s car, but lost control of the vehicle on a curve and struck a tree (effect).
If ice is heated to its liquefaction point, it then becomes liquid.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water.

Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs

These paragraphs highlight the similarities and differences between two or more persons, places, objects, or ideas.