English Grammar: Mastering Relative Clauses & Modal Verbs
Unit 5: Relative Clauses (Las Oraciones de Relativo)
Defining Relative Clauses
WHO and THAT: Referring to People
- There are many holidaymakers who/that prefer travelling in their own country.
WHICH and THAT: Referring to Objects/Things
- Dark tourism is a phenomenon which/that is attracting many people.
WHEN and THAT: Referring to a Moment in Time
- It was in 1986 when/that the Chernobyl disaster took place.
WHERE: Referring to a Particular Place
- Many people visit places where tragedies have happened.
WHOSE: Referring to Possession
- Dr. Barrett is a researcher whose study of dark tourism has just been completed.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
WHO, WHICH, WHEN, WHERE, WHOSE can all be used, but THAT cannot be used. These clauses are set off by commas and provide additional, non-essential information.
- In the past, some people, who were rich, used to visit battlefields.
- This site, where a disaster occurred, has become popular with tourists.
Unit 6: Modal Verbs (Los Modales)
Modal Verb: CAN
- Ability: You can swim very well.
- Request: Can you help me wash the car?
- Possibility: I can lend you my car.
- Suggestion: You can bring something for my birthday party.
Modal Verb: BE ABLE TO
- Ability: Don’t worry. I will be able to find the street.
Modal Verb: CAN’T
- Inability: He is very nervous. He can’t sleep.
- Prohibition: You can’t eat sweets before dinner.
- Disbelief: That can’t be your father. He looks very young.
Modal Verb: COULD
- Past Ability: My mother could dance when she was a child.
- Polite Request: Could you pass me that book, please?
- Polite Suggestion: We could visit him next week.
- Possibility: My sister could come to the party.
Modal Verbs: MAY / MIGHT
- Possibility: It may/might be a sunny weekend.
Modal Verb: MAY
- Polite Request: May I borrow your dictionary, please?
Modal Verb: WOULD
- Formal Request: Would you come with me to the wedding?
- Offer: Would you like some coffee?
Modal Verb: MUST
- Obligation, Strong Necessity: She must wear a uniform at her school.
- Certainty (that something is true): My cousin has broken his leg. It must hurt him very much.
Modal Verb: HAVE TO
- Obligation, Necessity: You have to study hard if you want to get good marks.
Modal Verb: NEED TO
- Obligation, Necessity: I need to buy some meat for dinner.
Modal Verb: NEEDN’T
- Lack of Obligation/Necessity: You needn’t take me home today.
Modal Verb: DON’T HAVE TO
- Lack of Obligation/Necessity: We don’t have to attend the conference.
Modal Verb: MUSTN’T
- Prohibition: You mustn’t step on the grass.
Modal Verbs: SHOULD / OUGHT TO
- Advice, Opinion: She should/ought to tell them the truth.
Perfect Modals (Los Modales Perfectos)
Perfect Modal: MUST HAVE
- Certainty (that something was true in the past): It must have been very hard for her to hear the truth.
Perfect Modals: MAY / MIGHT HAVE
- A Guess About a Past Action: She may/might have forgotten about our meeting.
Perfect Modal: COULD HAVE
- Ability to Do Something in the Past (which in the end was not done): I could have gone with him, but I decided to stay home.
Perfect Modal: COULDN’T HAVE
- Certainty (that something did not happen in the past): They were really in love with each other. She couldn’t have broken up with him.
Perfect Modal: WOULD HAVE
- Desire to Do Something in the Past (which in fact could not be done): We would have travelled to the USA, but we didn’t have enough money.
Perfect Modals: SHOULD / OUGHT TO HAVE
- Criticism or Regret After an Event: You should/ought to have told them we aren’t friends anymore.
Perfect Modal: SHOULDN’T HAVE
- Criticism or Regret After an Event: We shouldn’t have left before the concert ended.
Perfect Modal: NEEDN’T HAVE
- An Unnecessary Past Action: I was going to make dinner. You needn’t have made it.