English Grammar Essentials: Clauses, Tenses & Modals

Posted on Sep 17, 2025 in English

English Grammar Essentials

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun. They can be:

  • Non-defining (with commas): Used for extra, non-essential information. The clause can be removed without changing the main meaning of the sentence. In these clauses, who or which cannot be replaced by that.
    • Example: That is the singer, about whom I was talking.
  • Defining (without commas): Used for essential information that identifies the noun. The clause is crucial to the meaning of the sentence. In these clauses, who or which can often be replaced by that.
    • Example: This is the project in which we took part last year.

Relative Clause Examples:

  • This is the project in which we took part last year.
  • That is the teacher to whom I was asking questions.
  • That is the man with whom Mary went out yesterday.
  • That is the singer about whom I was talking.

Linking Words and Conjunctions

Linking words connect ideas and sentences, improving coherence and flow.

Giving Examples:

  • for example
  • for instance
  • namely

Adding Information:

  • and
  • in addition
  • furthermore
  • moreover
  • besides
  • also
  • too

Summarizing:

  • in short
  • in brief
  • in summary
  • to summarize
  • in a nutshell (meaning: in a few words)
  • to conclude
  • in conclusion

Sequencing Ideas:

  • the former…the latter
  • firstly, secondly, finally
  • the first point
  • lastly
  • the following

Giving a Reason:

  • due to
  • owing to
  • because of
  • since (meaning: as)
  • as (meaning: because)

Giving a Result:

  • therefore (meaning: for that reason)
  • so (meaning: consequently)
  • consequently
  • this means that
  • as a result

Contrasting Ideas:

  • but
  • however
  • nevertheless (meaning: in spite of that)
  • although (meaning: even if)
  • despite
  • in spite of (meaning: regardless of)
  • nonetheless (meaning: even so)
  • while
  • whereas (meaning: in contrast)
  • unlike (meaning: in contrast to)

Other Important Conjunctions:

  • Even if (although)
  • Only if (solely on the condition that)
  • Provided/as long as (on the condition that)
  • Unless (if not)

Examples of Linking Words in Sentences

  • Although it was a long task, I finished it on time.
  • In spite of the fact that he was unwell, he still came to work.
  • It was such an expensive car that I couldn’t afford it.
  • Linda was so excited after the surprise party that she burst into tears.
  • She bought a train ticket to Rome as she is scared of flying.
  • They studied for many hours so as to pass the exam.
  • The receptionist phoned the customers in order to offer them a discount.
  • Jennie didn’t start the adventure activity, since she had broken a leg.
  • The boat didn’t leave the port because of the bad weather.

Expressing Wishes, Regrets, and Complaints

Expressing Wishes (for present and future):

Use If only / I wish + past simple. Note: The verb ‘to be’ in the first person singular uses ‘were’.

  • Example: I wish I were a millionaire.

Expressing Regrets (for the past):

Use I wish + past perfect.

  • Example: I wish I had woken up early.

Expressing Complaints (impatience, anger, dissatisfaction):

Use I wish + would + infinitive.

  • Example: I wish you wouldn’t arrive so late all the time.

Conditional Sentences

Conditional Type 1 (Real Conditional):

If + present simple, will + infinitive

  • Example: If I find it, I will send it.

Conditional Type 2 (Unreal Conditional):

If + past simple, would + infinitive

  • Example: If I found it, I would send it.

Conditional Type 3 (Past Unreal Conditional):

If + past perfect, would + have + past participle

  • Example: If I had found it, I would have sent it.

Verb Tenses Overview

Present Perfect:

  • I have bought (he comprado)

Present Perfect Continuous:

  • I have been buying (he estado comprando)

Past Perfect:

  • I had gone (yo había ido)

Past Perfect Continuous:

  • I had been speaking (había estado hablando)

Future Simple:

  • I will come (vendré)

Future Continuous:

  • I will be traveling (voy a estar viajando)

Future Perfect:

  • I will have completed (habré completado)

Modal Verbs

Ability:

  • can, could, be able to (+ infinitive)

Permission:

  • can, could, may, might, be allowed to (+ infinitive)
  • Note: To ask for permission, ‘may’ or ‘can’ are common. ‘Be allowed to’ is also used.

Obligation and Necessity:

  • Must: Authority given by the speaker.
  • Have to: Authority not given by the speaker (external obligation).
  • Had to: Past obligation.
  • Needn’t: Speaker gives permission not to do something (it’s not necessary).
  • Needn’t have + past participle: Someone did something, but it wasn’t necessary.
  • Didn’t need to + infinitive: Something wasn’t necessary, and we don’t know if it was done or not.

Obligation and Advice:

  • Should, ought to, had better (+ infinitive) = debería (should)
  • Should have, ought to have (+ past participle) = debiste (should have)

Possibility:

  • May, might, could (+ infinitive) = puede que (it’s possible that)
  • May have, might have, could have (+ past participle) = podría que (it might have been)

Probability:

  • Should, ought to (+ infinitive) = debería, tendría que (it’s probable that)

Adverbs and Discourse Markers

  • Despite, in spite of (a pesar de)
  • Nevertheless, yet, however (sin embargo)
  • Moreover (además)
  • most people agree
  • one advantage
  • on the other hand
  • lastly
  • on balance

Report Writing Phrases

  • in order to discover more (para descubrir más)
  • because of this (debido a esto)
  • consequently
  • in addition (además)
  • to sum up (en resumen)
  • most people think
  • in the first moment
  • later
  • for example
  • however
  • moreover
  • what’s more (además)
  • on balance

Using Impersonal ‘It’

  • It seems that (parece que)
  • It was found that (se descubrió que)
  • It could/may/might be