Economic, Social, and Political Changes in Europe from 1453 to 1789
Economy
- Increased agricultural production. BUT no technological advances at this time. Agriculture and livestock farming continued to be the main source of economic activity. As a result, societies were very vulnerable: during the years of bad crops, hunger and disease reappeared.
- Intensified commercial activity: the excess of food produced was sold in the city markets. In addition, merchants or traders traveled in search of new markets, establishing trade routes over land and sea that connected distant places.
- Expansion of craftsmanship: products were made in workshops, controlled by guilds.
- To meet growing demand, products were also made in people’s homes through the domestic system. Merchants provided the families with the tools and raw materials to make the products.
- Due to the voyages of exploration to new lands, new products were brought to Europe. These included precious metals, foods, and spices.
- Economic growth led to the development of banking. Bankers started changing money and looking after the money and precious metals of their clients.
Social Changes
Population increase in Europe: from 80 million (early 16th century) to 150 million (late 16th century)
- The privileged class: nobility and clergy. They were a minority, but they owned most of the land. They were the only ones who had access to high political positions and numerous privileges: they did not pay taxes and were tried by special courts. They lived in the castles of the country or in palaces of the city.
- The underprivileged class, also called commoners, who paid numerous taxes.
- The bourgeoisie, the inhabitants of the city, were not ruled by a feudal lord. This social group increased in number, grew richer, and gained more political influence during the Modern Age.
- The peasants, the largest group, were servants of the feudal lord or nobleman.
Politics
- The monarchs had more resources for what they imposed taxes: and they became more powerful. The new form of reign was called authoritarian monarchy.
- Main states: The Spanish monarchy under the Catholic Monarchs: Isabel I of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon. Portugal, independent until the end of the 16th century. Later, part of the Spanish monarchy. The French monarchy gained power after the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). The relevant monarchs of this time were Louis XII and Francisco I. The English monarchy was consolidated after the civil war (The Wars of the Roses, 1455-1487). In the 16th century, the Tudor dynasty came to power. Enrique VIII faced the Pope and Isabel I defeated the Spanish King Felipe II, maintaining the independence of the kingdom. The Holy Roman Empire was made up of a multitude of independent kingdoms and territories in central Europe. The emperors could not unify them. Italy was divided into small principalities and republics: Venice, Florence, the Papal States (ruled by the Pope) and Naples. The Ottoman Empire expanded during the 15th century. Mehmed II ‘the Conqueror took control of Constantinople and much of the Balkan Peninsula. The Russian monarchy expanded its territories with the conquests of Ivan III the Great in the 15th century and Ivan IV the Terrible in the 16th century. Russian monarchs adopted the title of tsar or emperor.
Humanism
It was a movement, born in Italy in the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries, characterized by the Revival of classical culture, anthropocentrism, optimism and creativity, the desire for knowledge and critical thinking. The main humanists were Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More. Their main characteristics were: A renewed interest in classical culture (classical Greek and Roman culture and philosophy) Anthropocentrism: the human being becomes the center of philosophical reflection and artistic creation. Although the humanists remained Christian, they abandoned the theocentrism of the Middle Ages. They tried to explain reality without religion. Optimism and creativity: religious beliefs that caused fear (the concept of sin) were replaced by the belief in a better life in this world. Creativity was oriented to obtaining better techniques, which led to numerous inventions. Humanists argued that people were fully human when educated. The desire to know: they wanted to learn everything and be the Renaissance Man. Critical thinking: they tried to explain natural phenomena through: Individual reflection: reason. Extensive studies: research. Practical demonstrations: experimentation. The use of vernacular languages: previously, most books were written in Latin. Humanists began to write their works in the languages spoken in their countries. Because of this, more people had access to culture and new knowledge.
Reform
It was a religious movement that spread across Europe in the 16th century. century and resulted in the division of Christianity. The Protestant Reformation was started by the German monk Martin Luther, who rejected the authority of the Pope and criticized corruption within the Church. He argued that: To gain salvation it was enough to have faith in Christ Anyone could freely interpret the Bible, so the priests were not necessary There were only two sacraments: Baptism and the Eucharist Reform Other Protestant movements: Calvinism, by John Calvin. Believed in predestination: each person is destined by God for eternal damnation or salvation. Anglicanism: began when King Henry VIII of England rejected the authority of the Pope and proclaimed himself head of the Anglican Church. Counter-Reformation To combat Protestantism, the Catholic Church went through a process of reform. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) determined the measures to be taken and the principles to be followed: It confirmed the authority of the Pope and the Church. Reaffirmed that good works were necessary to achieve eternal salvation. Only the Church authorities had the right to interpret the Bible. There were several sacraments. Determined the steps to follow to improve the training of priests and ensure that they fulfill their functions. The Society of Jesus, a religious order founded by Ignacio de Loyola in 1534, spread the ideas of the Counter-Reformation.