Economic Liberalism, Absolute Monarchy, and Industrial Revolution
Economic Liberalism
Economic liberalism is a political doctrine that supports capitalism as an economic model. Economic thinking had evolved. Mercantilist protectionism from the 17th century was challenged by the ideas of economic liberalism, championed by British thinkers. Its founder, Adam Smith, established these principles:
- Personal interest and the pursuit of maximum profit are the engines of the economy.
- The various interests are regulated by the market due to price, supply, and demand.
- The state should not intervene in the economy and should allow the free development of private interests.
- Eliminate protectionist barriers and monopolies that impede economic development.
- Protect society from violence and invasion.
- Protect individuals in the community from oppression and injustice.
- Perform works that do not interest the private sector because they are not profitable.
Absolute Monarchy
The centerpiece of the Old Regime was absolute monarchy by divine right. The state was controlled by the monarch, who concentrated all powers in his person and possessed absolute power, e.g., Louis XIV, the Sun King. The King was the principal organ of the state council, whose members were appointed by the king and became commonly known as secretaries of state (ministers). The provincial administration was in the hands of governors. Officials and bureaucrats were responsible for implementing royal orders, administering justice, and collecting taxes. The monarch did not share sovereignty with any institution. His power was limited only by divine law, to which he was subject, by natural law, and by the fundamental laws of each kingdom. Absolute monarchs tried to marginalize parliaments and only used them in extreme situations.
Parliament in England
In England, in 1649, a first revolution overthrew and executed Charles I (Stuart), who sought to govern without the control of Parliament. The new monarch, Charles II, had to accept the Habeas Corpus, which ensured that every detainee had the right to appear before a judge and have a lawyer for his defense.
In 1689, a second revolution overthrew the Stuarts, and Parliament forced the new king, William of Orange, to swear a Declaration of Rights, which limited the powers of the monarch and submitted some of his decisions to Parliament. England became a parliamentary monarchy. This Parliament had its limitations: only a minority had the right to vote, slavery remained, and the colonies were not represented in Parliament.
The Textile Industry
The first mechanized industry was the cotton textile industry, first spinning and then weaving:
- John Kay (1733): Designed the flying shuttle, which increased the speed of weaving and allowed for wider pieces.
- James Hargreaves (1764): Created the spinning jenny, a spinning machine that needed only one worker and could spin 8 threads at a time.
- Samuel Crompton (1779): Created the mule-jenny, which produced fine and resistant yarn in large quantities.
- Edmund Cartwright (1785): Created the first mechanical weaving workshop.
- James Watt (1769): Invented the steam engine.
Liberalism
Liberalism encompasses ideological, political, and economic doctrines. Its ideas were based on the political systems created by the bourgeois revolutions and had these principles:
- Defended the right to individual freedom.
- Opposed absolute power and advocated for the separation of powers and the sovereignty of the nation, represented by courts or parliament.
The Constitution is the fundamental revolutionary document. It acquired a revolutionary character during the first half of the 19th century, driven by the bourgeoisie and working classes.
Chartism
Chartism was a major mass movement that reached its peak between 1838 and 1848. It had the following objectives:
- Obtaining political rights for workers.
In 1838, the London Working Men’s Association produced the People’s Charter, which demanded:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Annual elections.
- Establishment of the secret ballot.
- A 10-hour workday.
- State intervention to improve social protection.