Early Modern Period: Transformations in Europe
Early Modern Period: A New Historical Era
The Fall of Constantinople to the Turks marked a new historical period: the Early Modern Period.
New Political Systems: Authoritarian Monarchs
A new political system ruled by authoritarian monarchs emerged, characterized by:
- Permanent army with professional soldiers
- Common laws in all territories
- Administration with government officials
- Development of diplomacy to defend their interests abroad
Economic Transformations
Agriculture
There was an increase in demand for food and raw materials by cities, so new land had to be cultivated. The main crop was cereal.
Craftwork
Craftwork was controlled by guilds, with textile production being the most important. The domestic system also emerged.
Trade
The exchange of European products for those from America and Asia expanded. New methods of payment, such as the bill of exchange, were introduced.
Social Structure
Society was structured as follows:
- Nobility: Owned large areas of land and kept their privileges.
- Clergy: Lost political power.
- Peasants: Their economic situation did not improve much, but they obtained freedom from feudal lords.
- Bourgeoisie:
- High Bourgeoisie: Controlled banking and trade.
- Petite Bourgeoisie: Craftworkers and modest merchants with some participation in city government.
Urban Development
- Modest Houses: Workshop or shop on the ground floor and family home on the upper floor.
- Luxurious Houses (wealthy families): Three floors, including:
- Ground floor: Courtyards or store room.
- First floor: Sala (largest room for receptions) and master bedroom.
- Small room: Study (with desks, chairs, books, etc.).
- Second floor: Kitchen.
Humanism
Humanism was an intellectual movement characterized by admiration for the classical age. It emphasized human beings at the center of the universe, a shift from theocentrism.
Protestant Reformation
Initiated by monk Martin Luther, it rejected the Pope’s authority and criticized corruption within the Church. Key aspects included:
- Gaining salvation through faith in Christ.
- Any person could interpret the Bible.
- Only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist.
Other branches:
- Calvinism: Predestination, where a person is destined by God for eternal condemnation or salvation.
- Anglicanism: King Henry VIII of England rejected the Pope’s authority and proclaimed himself head of the Anglican Church.
Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church’s response, which:
- Confirmed the authority of the Pope.
- Stated that good works were necessary to achieve eternal salvation.
- Affirmed that Church authorities had the right to interpret the Bible.
- Maintained the seven sacraments.
- Outlined steps to improve the training of priests.
- Established the Society of Jesus, a religious order.
Catholic Monarchs
- Inquisition: Addressed false converts.
- Corregidor: Oversaw city councils.
- Columbus: Discovered America.
- Santa Hermandad: Maintained order in rural areas.
Carlos I
- Battle of Mühlberg: Protestant defeat.
- German Revolt: In Valencia.
- Rebellion of Comuneros: In Castile.
Felipe II
- Invincible Armada: Against England.
- Battle of Lepanto: Turkish defeat.
- Morisco Rebellion: In Granada.
Age of Discovery and Spanish Conquest
In 1492, Christopher Columbus reached America, which was inhabited by the Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas.
- Hernán Cortés: Conquered the Aztec Empire.
- Francisco Pizarro: Conquered the Inca Empire.
- Spanish Conquest: Expanded into Maya lands.
Consequences
- Establishment of new institutions, such as viceroyalties.
- Formation of colonial empires.
- Extraction of large quantities of gold and silver.
- Introduction of new world crops: wheat, grapes, coffee, rice.
- Decrease in the indigenous population.
- Emigration of Spanish people to America, leading to a Mestizo population.
- Introduction of the Christian religion to America.