Early Modern Age and Renaissance Art
1. The Early Modern Age
1.1 Economic Transformation
- Increased agricultural production: The three-field system was maintained, with one section left fallow. Agriculture and livestock continued to be the main sources of economic activity.
- Intensified commercial activity: Surplus products were sold in city markets. Merchants established trade routes.
1.2 Social Change
Population increased, and cities grew, leading to an urban society divided into social groups:
Privileged Class
The nobility and clergy were the minority but owned most of the land and held privileges (e.g., exemption from taxes, judgment by special tribunals, residence in palaces and castles).
Unprivileged Class
The majority of the population paid numerous taxes and lacked access to high political positions. This class was divided into peasants and the bourgeoisie.
Peasants
The largest group, they were serfs of the feudal lords and nobles, paying rent or part of the harvest. Some migrated to cities.
Bourgeoisie
City inhabitants who became wealthier.
Upper Bourgeoisie
Important merchants, bankers, and officials who formed the ruling class.
Petite Bourgeoisie
Small merchants, less important officials, artisans, artists, servants, and laborers who lived in humble houses.
A marginalized social group consisted of beggars and vagabonds who lived on charity. Some social groups protested for their rights.
2. The Modern State
Growth in disposable wealth and tax proceeds empowered monarchs to reform existing institutions and create new ones:
- Formed powerful armies of mercenaries.
- Strengthened the bureaucracy to supervise kingdom affairs.
- Centralized power by creating new institutions.
- Established a permanent court.
- This new political organization is called the modern state.
3. Cultural Changes
The printing press and a new intellectual movement called humanism facilitated the rapid spread of ideas. Humanism’s main characteristics were:
- Renewed interest in classical culture.
- Anthropocentrism (human-centered focus).
- Optimism and creativity.
- Desire for knowledge.
- Critical thinking (individual reflection, practical demonstrations, extensive studies).
- Use of vernacular languages.
4. The Italian Renaissance
The humanist spirit created a new artistic style, the Renaissance, originating in the small Italian states due to:
- The arrival of Greek scholars in Italy.
- The abundance of Roman remains and the discovery of new archaeological remains on the Italian peninsula.
4.1 The Phases of the Renaissance
- Trecento (14th century): Early Renaissance features appeared, with Giotto as the first prominent artist.
- Quattrocento (15th century): New Renaissance innovations appeared in Florence, with Masaccio, Fra Angelico, and Botticelli as important painters.
- Cinquecento (16th century): Rome became the artistic center, with Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giorgione, and Titian as prominent painters.
- Mannerism (beginning in 1530): Harmony and proportion were abandoned.
4.2 Architecture
Renaissance architecture adopted these features from Greek and Roman art:
- Domes.
- Columns.
- Semicircular arches and coffered ceilings.
- Triangular pediments, friezes, geometric designs, and scrolls.
- Longitudinal and central-plan (circular, square, Greek cross) designs.
4.3 Flemish Painting
Flemish painting developed concurrently with the Italian Renaissance, fueled by the prosperous Flemish bourgeoisie. Notable painters included Jan van Eyck.
4.4 German Painting
Notable German painters included Matthias Grunewald and Albrecht Dürer.
4.5 French Architecture
Large castles were built as luxury residences in France.