Early Human History and Ancient Civilizations

Posted on Jul 8, 2025 in Geography

Prehistory: The Dawn of Human Civilization

Prehistory is the longest and most unknown period of human history. Its study relies on the few and often poorly preserved remains found, leading to hypotheses created through comparative analysis.

Prehistory has evolving chronological boundaries and content that are under perpetual revision. We distinguish two primary phases:

  • The Paleolithic
  • The Neolithic

The Paleolithic Era: Nomadic Hunters and Early Art

The Paleolithic is characterized by the creation of tools using percussion or notching techniques. Generally, during this stage, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. They sometimes sought shelter in caves, leading to the development of cave painting, which is broadly divided into two schools:

  • The Franco-Cantabrian School: Known for realistic, multicolored, high-volume depictions that often lack a clear composition.
  • The Levantine-African School: Characterized by abstract, smaller, monochrome figures that frequently form compositions.

The Neolithic Revolution: From Hunter to Producer

Around 8000 BC, a significant climate change occurred, marked by the end of the last ice age. This environmental shift prompted a fundamental transformation from a predatory lifestyle to a productive one. This period saw the emergence of:

  • Agriculture and farming
  • Animal husbandry and domestication
  • Sedentism (permanent settlements)
  • The appearance of towns and permanent buildings
  • Funerary pottery and complex burial practices

The most important megalithic monuments from this era include dolmens, menhirs, alignments, and caves with stone circles. These structures often indicated burials or shrines, signifying a developed religious life among early societies. Humans typically settled near rivers, which provided essential resources.

The “Neolithic Revolution” encompasses these profound changes, representing the first economic revolution in human history.

Ancient History: Foundations of Civilization

Ancient History begins around 3500 BC with the advent of writing and concludes in 476 AD with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Many influential civilizations flourished during this period, including:

  • Persia
  • Mesopotamia
  • Egypt
  • Greece
  • Rome

Common Characteristics of Ancient Civilizations

These early civilizations shared several key features:

  • Geographic Location: They were primarily located in the temperate zones of Asia, Europe, and Africa, typically along major rivers, which provided fertile land and transportation.
  • Development of Writing: All developed sophisticated writing systems on various materials like clay tablets, papyrus, or stone. These writings served multiple purposes:
    • Accounting and record-keeping
    • Descriptions of religious ceremonies
    • Official correspondence and personal letters
  • Political Organization: Politically, civilizations were organized into city-states and, in some cases, vast empires. Rulers, often kings, were initially elected but later became hereditary. Kings held significant political and religious power, supported by a hierarchy of officials.
  • Social Structure: Society was highly stratified, often including slavery. A person’s wealth and status were frequently determined by the number of slaves they owned. The social hierarchy typically placed the king at the top, followed by priests and the military. Below them were landowners, various employees, and finally, slaves. Slavery often resulted from wars, inheritance, or debt. Freed slaves, granted liberty by their owners, also existed.

Economy of Ancient Civilizations

Ancient economies were primarily based on subsistence agriculture. While most production was for consumption, some civilizations traded surpluses. Others specialized in crafts or acted as trade intermediaries, representing the first instances of such specialized economic roles in history. These societies also developed and used currency with characteristics similar to those of modern money.

Religiosity in Ancient Times

Religion in ancient civilizations was largely based on the worship of natural forces, celestial bodies (stars), and weather phenomena. Some civilizations practiced zoolatry (animal worship). Most religions believed in the principle of good and evil and the interplay of opposing forces. The majority were polytheistic, with notable exceptions:

  • Persian (Zoroastrianism): Dualistic, focusing on two opposing forces.
  • Israelite (Judaism): Monotheistic, believing in one God.

Myths: Explaining the World and Beyond

Myths served to explain the real world and the underworld, and sought to address humanity’s most profound concerns, such as life, death, and the afterlife. Two civilizations profoundly influenced Western culture through their rich mythologies and philosophical contributions: the Greek and Roman civilizations.