Early History of the British Isles
Early Peoples of the British Isles
Before the Roman Empire, several cultures and peoples settled in the British Isles.
Homo heidelbergensis: Around 500,000 years ago, when Great Britain was still connected to Europe, Homo heidelbergensis populated the area.
Homo neanderthalensis: Approximately 230,000 years ago, Homo neanderthalensis arrived in Britain.
Homo sapiens: Though originating 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens arrived in Great Britain around 40,000 years ago, with a substantial population formed 13,000 years ago.
Bell Beaker Culture: Around 2600 BC, during the Early Bronze Age, the Bell Beaker culture arrived in the Isles. This culture is noted for its inverted bell-beaker drinking vessels and is considered a complex cultural and social phenomenon.
Wessex Culture: Following the Bell Beaker culture, the Wessex culture, an evolution of the former, thrived from 2000 to 1400 BC.
The “Atlantic Celts”: According to the “Atlantic Celts” theory, Celtic culture and language originated along the continent’s west coast during the early Iron Age (1200 BC). Through cultural diffusion and immigration, it spread north into the British Isles around 1000 BC.
The Scots: The Scots are descendants of the original inhabitants of Ireland, mixed with Celts who immigrated to the island.
The Picts: The Picts are descendants of the native people of Scotland, present during the Iron Age. The name “Picts” was coined by the Romans.
Roman Britain
Initial Expeditions and Invasion (55–54 BC, 43 AD): Julius Caesar conducted two early expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC, mainly for reconnaissance and subjugation of southeastern tribes. The full-scale Roman invasion began in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, led by General Aulus Plautius with about 40,000 troops landing in Kent and advancing inland.
Key Battles and Early Conquest: The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni tribe in two major battles, likely at the rivers Medway and Thames. Togodumnus, a British leader, died during this period, while his brother Caratacus continued resistance. Claudius himself came to Britain to consolidate the conquest, capturing Camulodunum (Colchester), the native capital.
Pacification and Rebellions: The Romans faced ongoing resistance, notably from the Silures and Ordovices in Wales, led by Caratacus until his capture in AD 51. The most significant uprising was the Boudican Revolt (AD 60–61), led by Boudica of the Iceni tribe, who rebelled after Roman mistreatment following her husband’s death. The revolt destroyed Camulodunum, Londinium, and Verulamium but was eventually crushed by Roman forces at the Battle of Watling Street.
Expansion and Consolidation: Under Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84 AD), Roman control expanded into northern Britain, reaching Caledonia (modern Scotland). The Battle of Mons Graupius (AD 84) resulted in a decisive Roman victory over the Caledonians.
Roman Administration and Infrastructure: The province was organized with client kings like Cogidubnus in the south, and Roman towns, roads, and forts were established. Hadrian’s Wall was built to defend the northern frontier, followed later by the Antonine Wall further north, though the latter was abandoned.
Later Developments and Decline: In the late 3rd century, Britain experienced internal revolts, such as the usurpation by Carausius (287 AD) and Allectus (293 AD). The province was divided into four smaller provinces under Diocletian’s reforms. Christianity became legal in the early 4th century, and Emperor Constans visited Britain in 343 AD. By the late 4th century, barbarian raids increased, leading to instability and the eventual Roman withdrawal around AD 410.
Anglo-Saxon Britain
Roman Withdrawal: Britain was a Roman province for about four centuries until the Empire’s crises led to the Roman withdrawal, resulting in localized governance and defense.
Vortigern and Anglo-Saxon Mercenaries: Vortigern, a British ruler, hired Anglo-Saxon mercenaries (led by Hengest and Horsa) to defend against Picts and Scots, but they turned against the Britons, leading to the creation of England.
Germanic Tribes: The Anglo-Saxons, including Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians, migrated from Germany and Denmark. ‘England’ is derived from ‘Angle-land.’
Treachery of the Long Knives: A symbolic event where Anglo-Saxons betrayed British leaders at a peace banquet.
Arthurian Legends: Legends of King Arthur emerged during this time, depicting him as a leader against the Anglo-Saxons.
Old English: The Anglo-Saxon language (Old English) was predominant from the 5th to 11th centuries and is the ancestor of Modern English.
The Heptarchy: Anglo-Saxon England was divided into seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and Kent.
Scandinavian Invasions: From the 8th to 11th centuries, Vikings invaded, leading to the establishment of the Danelaw, a region under Danish law and culture.
The Viking Age in Britain
This document details the Viking Age (793–1066 AD), covering Viking explorations, trade, settlements, and raids. Key points include:
Viking Groups: Divided into Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Vikings, each with distinct expansion routes.
Religion and Mythology: Polytheistic religion led by Odin and Thor, with beliefs centered on gods and heroes.
Viking Age in England: Marked by the Lindisfarne raid in 793 AD, the establishment of the Danelaw, and battles with Anglo-Saxons. The Viking Age ended in 1066 with Harald Hardrada’s defeat.
Social Structure: Hierarchical society with kings/chieftains, jarls, karls (freemen), and thralls (slaves).
Daily Life: Vikings lived in long wooden houses, traded goods like furs and iron, and had advanced hygiene practices.
Reasons for Raids: Motivated by economic gain, overpopulation, adventure, and political ambitions.
Resistance: Wales resisted Viking incursions due to its terrain and King Rhodri Mawr’s leadership.
Viking Kings in England: Cnut the Great, Harold Harefoot, and Harthacanute.
St. Brice’s Day Massacre: King Æthelred’s attempt to eliminate Danes in England.
Vikings in Paris: Sieges and ransoms, including a major siege in 885.
Rollo: Founder and first ruler of the Duchy of Normandy.
The Norman Conquest
Norman Origins and Settlement: The Normans descended from Norse Vikings, settling in northern France in the 9th–10th centuries. Under Rollo, they formed the Duchy of Normandy, integrating into French culture while maintaining Viking traditions.
Rollo’s Leadership: Rollo, a Viking leader, negotiated with King Charles III to establish Normandy, becoming its first Duke and a key figure in Norman expansion.
Normandy’s Significance: Normandy, comprising areas like Seine-Maritime, Calvados, and Manche, played a crucial role in medieval European history, notably William the Conqueror’s invasion of England in 1066.
Succession Crisis: Edward the Confessor’s death in 1066 led to a succession battle among Harold Godwinson, William of Normandy, and Harald Hardrada.
Key Battles: Harald Hardrada was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge by Harold Godwinson. William defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings, resulting in the Norman Conquest of England.
Post-Conquest Changes: William replaced Anglo-Saxon elites with Norman lords, constructed castles, and implemented the Norman feudal system. The Domesday Book was commissioned for efficient kingdom management, and Norman French influenced the English language.
Feudal System: The feudal system, established post-conquest, was a social hierarchy based on land ownership with mutual obligations between lords and vassals.
Domesday Book: William the Conqueror ordered the creation of the Domesday Book in 1086 to record land ownership, resources, and taxes owed.