Early Encounters Between Europeans and Native Americans: History and Impact

Posted on May 20, 2024 in History

Early Encounters Between Europeans and Native Americans

In the late 15th century, when Europeans encountered Native Americans, a long history of mutual incomprehension began. These encounters amounted to a clash of two worlds. Europeans and Native Americans caught diseases from each other, which Europeans survived better. Epidemics annihilated entire Native cultures. North America’s pre-Columbian population of 5 million shrank to between 1 and 2 million. There were all kinds of exchanges of plants and animals such as horses, cows, donkeys, and sheep, which were alien to Native Americans and tobacco, maize, and potatoes that were unknown to Europeans.

European societies were as diverse as Native American societies. There were different cultures which viewed each other with dislike. Both cultures were also incapable of seeing one another as individuals. Native Americans saw all Europeans as one and vice versa. To Europeans, Native Americans were lazy and wasted natural resources as they regarded nature as a great mother. That meant that Native Americans did not understand how pieces of their own ‘mother’ could be sold and owned. The main focus of conflict between Native Americans and Europeans was over land ownership. Native Americans viewed other indigenous with dislike as well.

The Founders

The people who established the colonies are considered founders rather than immigrants, as they created institutions and rules that later arrivals had to adjust to.

The Spaniards occupied coastal Florida and California and the Southwest in the 16th and 17th centuries. They tried to enslave Natives and then to convert them to Christianity then shepherding and farm the land. Many Natives rejected these customs and attacked the Spaniards. The English established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. The king didn’t want to rule such distant colonies so the crown legalized private enterprises to undertake the colonization. At first, Virginia tried to extract gold but only tobacco proved to be a successful export product and in 1619, due to the lack of plantation laborers, colonists imported the first African laborers as indentured servants (free people contracted for 5 to 7 years of servitude). By the end of the 17th century, there were about 10,000 Africans in hereditary slavery. In 1630, Lord Baltimore established Maryland as a haven for Catholics who were persecuted in England. However, its population soon resembled that of Virginia. Other aristocrats financed Georgia and Carolinas as commercial investments. They farmed rice and indigo. Southern settlers had to fight the Natives. To escape British oppression in England, the Pilgrims, a religious group which separated from the Church of England, settled in Massachusetts. They wanted to purify the Church of England and show how English society could be reformed. Over 20,000 people emigrated for this purpose and expanded quite rapidly. The founding of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania was almost accidental by the Dutch and the Swedish for posts that export furs which later grew as colonies. They set the precedent of tolerance of different races in New Amsterdam, that later became New York. Pennsylvania’s founders were the Quakers, who went to America from England as religious refugees.

The First Colonial Immigration: 1680-1776

The founders came for economic gain and religious freedom. The founders’ descendants were only willing to welcome newcomers if they adapted to Anglo-American culture, conventions, or needed labor. Therefore, the reception of immigrants depended on the location and the individual’s abilities. Largely hostile in New England and more tolerant in the diverse Middle Colonies. St. Jean de Crèvecoeur, an immigrant farmer from France, first stated in 1782 the idea that in America ‘individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of man’. The first wave was possible because after 1660, the crown opposed emigration from England and Wales but encouraged it from other nations. In 1662, when King Charles II authorized the Royal African Company as the supplier of slaves to English colonies, thousands of Africans were introduced to America, after surviving the terrible conditions of the trip on slave ships. The Scottish and Irish were the largest groups of immigrants (voluntary newcomers), who left Northern Ireland after 1680 because of economic discrimination and religious persecution by England. Most of them paid for their trips by becoming servants (becoming indentured servants) for a certain period of time, and when it was over, they were granted a small amount of money which they used to buy cheap land and settle. England also sent convicts to America to solve problems in the country and provide the colony with needed labor. These people became underclass and quickly Americanized. German immigrants were the largest non-English-speaking group. German immigrants aroused more opposition than Scots-Irish. They created German-speaking communities and were known for their hard work, agricultural methods, and success. Like the Scots-Irish, the Germans lived on the frontier. The French and Jews were discriminated by the English who limited their rights and even attacked their churches and synagogues. Mixed marriages were allowed if they changed their religion. This wave of immigration changed the demography and the English dominance. The diversity of the population led Thomas Paine, a political agitator, to call the US a ‘nation of nations’ at its founding. African Americans were 20 percent of the population and were a majority in Southern colonies. Native Americans were forced toward the interior part of the country or beyond the Appalachians. The cultural and political dominance was clearly Anglo-American.

The Second Wave of Immigration: The ‘Old’ Immigrants, 1820-1890

The fight for independence and forming the nation made the colonies more American. Most ethnic groups blended into the dominant culture. Many factors made Europeans come to America: religious problems, political issues, and the Industrial Revolution, among others. For most immigrants from Northwestern Europe, economic reasons were key. Europe’s population doubled from 1750 to 1850, with places like Ireland and parts of Germany relying heavily on potatoes for food. Cities grew fast, so farmers moved to big-scale farming with machines. In the 1800s, the Industrial Revolution and trade booms from Britain spread to Europe and the USA. Some jobs in cities or shipping slowed down people leaving, but rural areas had too many people, so many left anyway. People often moved from rural to city life, then to other countries – this became common. Changes in where jobs were pushed people to move. Steamships and trains made moving abroad easier, with letters from America giving good info about jobs. From 1820 to 1930, about 60 million people left their homes, with most going to the USA. Around 15.5 million came during the ‘old’ immigration time. Big immigrant groups were Germans, Irish, Britons, and Scandinavians, but many others like French Canadians, Chinese, Swiss, and Dutch came too. People came for lots of land and jobs. American railroads and governments invited immigrants with promises of land or good-paying jobs. Good times, land gifts like the Homestead Act of 1862, and gold in California made immigration rise a lot during this time.

The Third Wave: The ‘New’ Immigrants, 1890-1930

Around 1890, immigration to America changed. There was a decrease in immigrants from Northwestern Europe, but more came from Southern and Eastern Europe. By 1907, four out of five newcomers were from these ‘new’ regions. From 1890 to 1914, over a million immigrants arrived each year, totaling 15.5 million in 24 years. The largest ‘new’ groups were Italians, Jews, Poles, and Hungarians, with others like Mexicans, Russians, Czechs, Greeks, Portuguese, Syrians, Japanese, and Filipinos also coming. Many Americans saw these new immigrants as different, with unfamiliar languages, religions, manners, and clothes. Yet, they shared similar reasons for coming, like seeking better opportunities and escaping religious persecution, such as the Russian pogroms that drove Eastern European Jews. Travel costs decreased due to trains and steamships (often paid by relatives in America), allowing even the poor and young to migrate. This affordable travel made immigration seem temporary, with many staying briefly to save money for land or business back home. These new immigrants were typically younger, unmarried, and more likely to travel alone. Opportunities in America had shifted by 1890. The frontier closing meant the end of free government land, and fewer than a quarter found work in farming. Successful examples, like the Japanese in California, bought cheap land and made it productive. Most immigrants, about four-fifths, went where jobs were plentiful – to the industries in big cities like the Northeast and Midwest. However, due to machines, most jobs were low-paying and unskilled.

The Fourth Wave: 1965 to Present

In the late 90s, there was a lot of immigration to the US, the most ever. Besides people coming from nearby countries, there were also refugees and relatives from other places. Some came without the right papers or stayed longer than allowed. Many of these newcomers were from Latino and Asian backgrounds. They varied in their situations, like those who came in 1920. They were usually well-educated and better off in their home countries, but not in the US.

Some of these newcomers were refugees from wars and disasters. In the 1970s and 1980s, many people fled Southeast Asia because of the Vietnam War. Latino women were hired as live-in maids and nannies. They brought their families and made connections for others to come, called ‘chain migration.’ Different groups of immigrants settled in different places and formed communities. But this large influx of foreign-born people also led to more nativism and racism. Many Asians came with more money and education than Latinos. They were seen as the ‘model minority.’ Latinos, on the other hand, were often grouped together as ‘Hispanics,’ especially those from the Mexican border. This label sometimes included illegal immigrants. Illegal immigration became a hot topic in government debates about controlling who comes into the US.

Women in America

19TH CENTURY: SOME WEALTHY WHITE WOMEN IN d PAST DIDN’T nid 2 WORK & INSTEAD FOCUSED ON FOUNDING GIRLS’ SCHOOLS & FAMOUS COLLEGES. dey ALSO PLAYED A CRUCIAL ROLE IN IMPROVING CONDITIONS IN PRISONS, HOSPITALS, & SCHOOLS. d 1st ADVOC8S 4 EQUAL RIGHTS WERE ALSO ABOLITIONISTS, RECOGNIZING d UNFAIR TREATMENT OF AFRICAN AMERICANS & WOMEN. IN 1848, LUCRETIA MOTT & ELIZABETH CADY STAN2N ORGANIZED d SENECA FALLS CONVENTION, DEMANDING PROPERTY RIGHTS, DIVORCE RIGHTS, EDUC8ON, JOBS, & VOTING RIGHTS 4 WOMEN, SIMILAR 2 d DECLAR8ON OF INDEPENDENCE.

AFTERWARD, WOMEN c…. MEET 2 PURSUE THESE GOALS. BE4 d CIVIL WAR, SUSAN B. ANTHONY HELPED IMPROVE LAWS 4 WOMEN IN NEW YORK, ALTHOUGH THESE ADVANCEMENTS WERE L8R REVERSED. DURING d WAR, WOMEN WORKED AS TEACHERS, NURSES, & IN GOVERNMENT ROLES, CONTRIBUTING 2 d END OF SLAVERY thru d THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT. HOWEVER, wen AFRICAN AMERICAN MEN GAINED d RIGHT 2 VOTE & WOMEN DID nt, d WOMEN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT SPLIT. SOME ADVOC8D 4 N8ONWIDE SUFFRAGE QUICKLY, WHILE OTHERS PREFERRED A ST8-BY-ST8 APPROACH 2 AVOID UPSETTING POWERFUL GROUPS. WYOMING GRANTED WOMEN d RIGHT 2 VOTE IN 1869, BUT ONLY 3 ST8S FOLLOWED btwn 1870 & 1910. SOME ST8S ALLOWED WOMEN 2 VOTE ON LOCAL ISSUES, & ALTHOUGH WOMEN COULDN’T JOIN SKILLED WORKER UNIONS, dey SUPPORTED OTHERS & FOUGHT AGAINST CHILD LABOR.

IN d 20TH CENTURY, d WOMEN’S MOVEMENT UNITED 2 PASS d 9TEENTH AMENDMENT IN 1920, GRANTING WOMEN d RIGHT 2 VOTE. DESPITE MALE POLITICIANS EXPECTING WOMEN 2 VOTE 4 CHANGE, DISAGREEMENTS WITHIN WOMEN’S GROUPS SLOWED PROGRESS. SOME WANTED PROTECTIVE LABOR LAWS, WHILE OTHERS, LIKE SUPPORTERS OF d EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT (ERA), AIMED 4 EQUAL TREATMENT UNDER d LAW. d ERA DID nt PASS DUE 2 FEARS OF REMOVING PROTECTIVE LAWS 4 WOMEN. AFTER WORLD WAR II, MORE MARRIED WOMEN JOINED d WORK4CE, WITH ALMOST HALF EMPLOYED BY 1970. d 1960S SAW A NEW WOMEN’S MOVEMENT INSPIRED BY CIVIL RIGHTS, LEADING 2 LAWS LIKE d CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964 & d LEGALIZ8ON OF ABORTION IN 1973.

d WOMEN’S MOVEMENT MADE STRIDES, YET CHALLENGES PERSISTED. AFFIRM8VE ACTION FACED OPPOSITION, & DESPITE LEGAL ADVANCEMENTS, SEXUAL HARASSMENT & RAPE R8S ROSE, THOUGH PARTLY DUE 2 INCREASED REPORTING. WOMEN c….ARNING DEGREES & ENTERING TRADITIONALLY MALE-DOMIN8D FIELDS LIKE ENGINEERING, MEDICINE, & LAW. MORE WOMEN OWNED BUSINESSES & RAN 4 PUBLIC OFFICE, YET dey REMAINED UNDERREPRESENTED IN 2P ROLES. d GAP btwn RICH & POOR PERSISTED, WITH SINGLE MOTHERS, PARTICULARLY NON-WHITE & IMMIGRANT WOMEN, FACING HIGHER POVERTY R8S.

IN d 21ST CENTURY, LAWS PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY HAVE EVOLVED, PROHIBITING GENDER-SPECIFIC JOB ADS & ENDING EXCLUSION frm MOST MAJOR GROUPS. COURTS SUPPORT ANTI-SEXUAL HARASSMENT LAWS, WITH MORE WOMEN WILLING 2 REPORT OFFENSES SINCE ANITA HILL’S 1991 CASE AGAINST CLARENCE THOMAS. M8RNITY LEAVE LAWS HAVE IMPROVED, & MORE EMPLOYERS OFFER CHILD-CARE SERVICES. HOWEVER, CHALLENGES LIKE d FEMINIZ8ON OF POVERTY REMAIN, WITH WOMEN EARNING MORE BUT OFTEN IN LOW-PAYING JOBS. DESPITE PROGRESS, WOMEN R STILL OUTNUMBERED BY MEN IN hi-LEVEL POSITIONS, HIGHLIGHTING ONGOING GENDER DISPARITIES..

AFRICAN AMERICANSIN 2007, THERE WERE OVER 40 MILLION AFRICAN AMERICANS, ABOUT 13% OF d POPUL8ON. ORIGINALLY frm d U.S., MORE ALSO CAME frm d CARIBBEAN & AFRICA. wen AFRICANS 1st ARRIVED IN d AMERICAN SOUTH IN 1619, dey WERE nt SLAVES. HOWEVER, dey WERE L8R 4CED IN2 HEREDITARY SLAVERY, TRE8D AS PROPERTY. dis WAS ESPECIALLY PREVALENT ON LARGE 2BACCO & RICE PLANT8ONS IN VIRGINIA & MARYLAND. BY d TIME OF U.S. INDEPENDENCE, SLAVES MADE UP ABOUT 20% OF d POPUL8ON.

IN d 19TH CENTURY, AFRICAN AMERICANS WERE d 2nd-LARGEST MINORITY GROUP IN d U.S. INITIALLY, dey WORKED ON 2BACCO PLANT8ONS IN MARYLAND & VIRGINIA, BUT AS d CENTURY PROGRESSED, DEPENDENCE ON SLAVES LESSENED, & d IMPORT8ON OF BLACK SLAVES S2PPED. SENTIMENTS AGAINST SLAVERY GREW, LEADING 2 d CIVIL WAR IN 1861. AFTER d UNION VIC2RY, LINCOLN’S EMANCIP8ON PROCLAM8ON FREED SLAVES IN d UNDEFE8D SOUTH, & CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS WERE IMPLEMENTED 2 ABOLISH SLAVERY & GRANT BLACK MEN d RIGHT 2 VOTE. HOWEVER, AFTER UNION TROOPS lft, SOUTHERN ST8S ENACTED LAWS 2 SEGREG8 & RESTRICT d RIGHTS OF BLACK ppl, LASTING til d 1960S IN MANY PLACES.

IN d 20TH CENTURY, d BLACK POPUL8ON IN d NORTH GREW, THOUGH dey FACED DE FAC2 SEGREG8ON, ESPECIALLY IN PLACES LIKE HARLEM. DISCONTENT WITH THESE CONDITIONS LED 2 PROTEST MOVEMENTS IN d 1920S. d 2nd WORLD WAR BROUGHT A RUSH 4 JOBS IN d WEAPON INDUSTRY & ACCELER8D MIGR8ON frm d SOUTH.frm 1938, d NAACP ACHIEVED LEGAL VIC2RIES AGAINST SEGREG8ON IN SCHOOLS, BUT IMPLEMENT8ON WAS CHALLENGING, MET WITH OPPOSITION frm d SOUTH & LIMITED SUPPORT frm OTHER BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT. d 1955 ARREST OF ROSA PARKS IN ALABAMA SPARKED d MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, LED BY MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. dis WAS A CATALYST 4 d CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT OF d 1950S & 1960S. KING’S “Ive A DREAM” SPEECH IN 1963 @ d LINCOLN MEMORIAL IS ICONIC IN d FIGHT 4 RACIAL EQUALITY.d CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964 DECLARED DISCRIMIN8ON ILLEGAL IN JOBS & PUBLIC ACCOMMOD8ONS, YET d IMPACT ON EVERYDAY LIFE WAS SLOW. BLACK COMMUNITIES IN LOS ANGELES & DETROIT FACED PUBLIC UNREST. BLACK RADICALS, LIKE THOSE IN d BLACK POWER MOVEMENT, SOUGHT 2 ESTABLISH AN ALTERN8VE AFRICAN AMERICAN CULTURE. MALCOLM X, A PROMINENT FIGURE, REJECTED MAINSTREAM AMERICAN LIFESTYLE & POLITICS. HIS ASSASSIN8ON IN 1965, FOLLOWED BY KING’S IN 1968, SPARKED FURTHER CONFLICT.

PRESIDENTS NIXON & JOHNSON IMPLEMENTED ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS IN RESPONSE 2 RACIAL CONFLICTS, FOCUSING ON RELIEF, EDUC8ON, TRAINING, & HOUSING. HOWEVER, NEITHER LAWS NOR MOVEMENTS ACHIEVED FULL RACIAL EQUALITY. 2 BENEFIT frm EQUAL OPPORTUNITY, AFRICAN AMERICANS NEEDED btr HIGHER EDUC8ON 4 ACCESS 2 HIGHER-PAYING JOBS. IN 2008, THEIR WAGES REMAINED LOW, & THEIR UNEMPLOYMENT & POVERTY R8S WERE TWICE AS hi AS THOSE OF WHITE ppl.

N8VE AMERICANS. CONQUEST & REMOVAL, 1783-1860

N8VE AMERICANS BECAME A SMALL MINORITY AS A CONSEQUENCE OF INVASION & MILITARY CONQUEST BY d BRITISH & WHITE AMERICANS. DURING d AMERICAN REVOLUTION, MANY TRIBES REMAINED LOYAL 2 d BRITISH. d US THERE4 TRE8D dem AS CONQUERED N8ONS & DEMANDED LAND frm dem WITHOUT PAYMENT. thru d TREATY OF 1783, BRITAIN CEDED LAND 2 d US, LEAVING N8VE AMERICAS UNPROTECTED. wen SETTLERS TRIED 2 MOVE IN2 N8VE AMERICAN LANDS, THESE BLOCKED THEIR WAY, REFUSING 2 GIVE UP THEIR LANDS. 1st, d US SENT ARMIES 2 TAKE d LAND BY CONQUEST, BUT THEN, BOTH SIDES NEGOTI8D A TREATY. d US RECOGNIZED THEIR LAND CLAIMS & HAD 2 PAY 4 d LAND TAKEN BY SETTLERS. MANY LEADERS ATTEMPTED AN ASSIMIL8ON POLICY, SENDING MISSIONS & TEACHERS 2 “CIVILIZE dem”. MEANWHILE, coz OF d GROWTH OF d WHITE POPUL8ON WEST OF d APPALACHIANS, AN ALLIANCE OF TRIBES WAS 4MED 2 S2P US EXPANSION APPLYING 4 d HELP OF BRITAIN. IN 1830, PRESIDENT JACKSON SIGNED d INDIAN REMOVAL ACT, WHICH REQUIRED d MOVEMENT OF d REMAINING TRIBES 2 A “PERMANENT INDIAN TERRI2RY”. ol BUT 2 TRIBES ACCEPTED d REMOVAL AS d ONLY OPTION 2 EXTERMIN8ON. d CHEROKEE APPEALED 2 d US FEDERAL COURTS 2 ﬁGHT d REMOVAL ACT. d COURT DETERMINED dat AS d ﬁRST RESIDENTS OF d LAND, dey COULD ONLY LOSE THEIR LAND VOLUNTARILY. dis WAY, d REMOVAL ACT WAS DECLARED ILLEGAL. NEVERTHELESS, PRESIDENT JACKSON IGNORED d COURT & IN 1838 FEDERAL TROOPS “ESCORTED” d CHEROKEE 2 INDIAN TERRI2RY.

L8NOS

d SPANISH LANGUAGE & CULTURAL BACKGROUND IS d INEXACT BASIS 4 CALLING ppl frm d CARIBBEAN, CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICA L8NOS OR HISPANICS. MEXICANS HAVE BEEN COMING IN LARGE NUMBERS SINCE d 1990S. 2day, L8NOS R A LARGER MINORITY IN d US THAN AFRICAN AMERICANS. MANY LIVE IN SOUTH-WESTERN ST8S OR MID-WESTERN CITIES LIKE CHICAGO. PUER2 RICANS R d 2nd BIGGEST GROUP & LIVE MOSTLY IN NEW YORK & OTHER NORTHEASTERN URBAN AREAS. THERE IS ALSO A hi CONCENTR8ON OF L8NOS IN FLORIDA. L8NOS HAVE FACED RACE PREJUDICE & ECONOMIC DISCRIMIN8ON IN JOBS, HOUSING, EDUC8ON & POLITICS. IN d 1900S, MANY MEXICANS WENT 2 d US 2 ﬁLL NON-SKILLED AGRICULTURAL JOBS. HOWEVER, IN d 1930S, wen d gr8 DEPRESSION HIT, dey WERE ﬁRED & lft WITHOUT JOBS. MEXICANS WERE WELCOME AGAIN DURING d 2nd WORLD WAR wen d MEXICAN & AMERICAN GOVERNMENTS SIGNED d BRACERO PROGRAM 2 GUARANTEE RIGHTS 4 d BRACEROS. AFTER dat, ILLEGAL L8NO IMMIGR8ON hs INCREASED & FUELED CONTROVERSY OVER IMMIGRANT REGUL8ON. 4 DECADES, L8NO CHILDREN HAVE BEEN SENT 2 MEXICAN SCHOOLS IN d SOUTH-WEST. wen FEDERAL LAW DECLARED dem 2 b WHITE IN d 1940S, d SITU8ON IMPROVED SLIGHTLY BUT 2day, d gr8 MAJORITY OF L8NOS STILL GO 2 SEGREG8 SCHOOLS IN SEGREG8D DISTRICTS. dey HAVE BEEN PUNISHED 4 SPEAKING THEIR MOTHER LANGUAGES & MET PRESSURE 2 ANGLICIZE THEIR CULTURE. IN d SOUTH-WEST, FLORIDA & NEW YORK CITY, dey HAVE ACHIEVED LEGAL REPRESENT8ON AS THERE HAVE BEEN ELECTED CANDID8S 4 YEARS. dey HAVE ALSO ORGANIZED IN “BROWN POWER” MOVEMENTS 2 ﬁGHT 4 CIVIL RIGHTS.

d PLACE OF ST8 GOVERNMENT IN AMERICAN FEDERALISM

SOME POWERS R PROHIBITED 2 d ST8S BUT d CONSTITUTION IN AN ATTEMPT 2 CRE8 A DISTRIBUTION OF POWER btwn N8ONAL AUTHORITIES, ST8S & ppl. THERE4, ST8S CANNOT COIN LEGAL CURRENCY, CONDUCT THEIR OWN 4IGN POLICY, KEEP THEIR OWN MILITARY SERVICES OR MAKE WAR. ol THESE POWERS R EXCLUSIVELY N8ONAL 2 AVOID CONﬂICT AMONG ST8S OR btwn ST8S & d GOVERNMENT. d CONSTITUTION ALSO DECLARES dat IT IS N8ONAL AUTHORITIES’ RESPONSIBILITY 2 PROTECT d ST8S frm 4IGN INVASIONS & INTERNAL REBELLION.

ST8S R 2 PROVIDE THEIR ppl WITH POLICE, ﬁRE & SANITARY DEPARTMENTS AMONG OTHER INSTITUTIONS. dey’RE ALSO RESPONSIBLE 4 PROVIDING EDUC8ONAL & HEALTH INSTITUTIONS. SOME ACTIVITIES R SHARED BY N8ONAL & ST8 AUTHORITIES SUCH AS LAW-MAKING, ESTABLISHING COURTS & TAXING. OVER TIME HOWEVER, THESE HAVE WORKED 2WARDS d ADVANTAGE OF d FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.SOME EVENTS SUCH AS d CIVIL WAR, BOTH WORLD WARS, d gr8 DEPRESSION AD d COLD WAR, HAVE PROVED 2 b BEYOND d ST8S’ CAPACITY & HAVE THERE4 STRENGTHEN N8ONAL GOVERNMENT, IN THESE CASES d ST8S HAVE ACCEPTED d TRANSFER OF POWER 2 N8ONAL AUTHORITIES.

GROWTH IN FEDERAL POWER hs COME thru LAW-MAKING. d SO-CALLED “ELASTIC CLAUSE” OF d CONSTITUTION hs SET PRECEDENTS 4 FEDERAL LEGISL8ON IN MANY AREAS. IT GIVES CONGRESS d RIGHT 2 MAKE d “NECESSARY AN PROPER” LAWS 2 CARRY OUT ITS POWERS. FEDERAL LAWS USE d GRANTS-IN-AID AS A WAY 2 PERSUADE ST8 GOVERNMENTS, d THREAT OF DENYING FUNDS IS A POWERFUL THREAT.

d POLITICAL PARTIES(Probable)

POLITICAL PARTIES CAME 2 EXIST coz ORGANIZ8ONS WERE NEEDED 2 RECRUIT CANDID8S 4 ol d SEPAR8 ELECTIONS. d SEPAR8ON OF POWERS ALSO NEEDED PARTIES 2 COORDIN8 d INITI8VE OF SEPAR8 BRANCHES. d FOUNDERS SET UP A SYSTEM dat ENCOURAGES 2 PARTIES. SINCE 1856 d MAJOR 1S HAVE BEEN d DEMOCR8C PARTY & d REPUBLICAN PARTY.

DESPITE THEIR DIFFERENT IDEOLOGIES, REPUBLICANS USUALLY IDENTIFY THEMSELVES AS CONSERV8VES, WHILE DEMOCRATS TEND 2 REPRESENT MODER8-2-LIBERAL POLITICAL ORIENT8ON. DEMOCRATS R SUPPORTED BY RACIAL MINORITIES, WOMEN, LOWER-INCOME & LESS EDUC8D POPUL8ON, WHILE REPUBLICANS R SEEM MORE REGIONAL & 2O EXCLUSIVELY WHITE.

d FEDERAL ORGANIZ8ON RESULTS IN ST8 & LOCAL PARTIES BEING AFﬁLI8 WITH BUT nt CONTROLLED BY d N8ONAL PARTIES, WHICH HAVE ORGANIZING COMMITTEES ON evry LEVEL. d ST8 & LOCAL PARTIES R USUALLY MORE ACTIVE THAN N8ONAL ORGANIZ8ONS.INDEPENDENT PARTIES OR MINOR PARTIES HAVE A LONG HIS2RY IN AMERICA. dey RARELY WIN GENERAL ELECTIONS coz OF d PUBLIC’S LOYALTY 2 d MAJOR PARTIES. THEIR VIC2RY USUALLY OCCURS IN d ST8 OR LOCAL CONTEXTS. AN IMPORTANT “3rd PARTY” WAS d ‘BULL MOOSE’ PROGRESSIVE PARTY 4MED BY LIBERAL REPUBLICANS & THEODORE ROOSEVELT, WHICH GOT 27 PERCENT IN d PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION & HELPED PUT PRESIDENT WILSON IN OFFICE.

d EXECUTIVE BRANCH

IT CONSISTS OF d PRESIDENT, VICE PRESIDENT, & 15 CABINET-LEVEL DEPARTMENTS. d PRESIDENT MUST b A NATURAL BORN CITIZEN, @ LEAST 35 YEARS OLD & HAVE BEEN A RESIDENT OF d US 4 @ LEAST 14 YEARS. HE IS ELECTED SEPAR8LY frm CONGRESS & CANNOT b REMOVED frm OFﬁCE BY A VOTE OF NON-CONﬁDENCE. HE IS ELECTED evry 4 YEARS & CHOOSES HIS VICE PRESIDENT AS RUNNING M8. d PRESIDENT IS ALSO d COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF d US ARMED 4CES. HIS MILITARY POWER IS 1 OF d MANY FAC2RS dat STRENGTHEN HIS POSITION AS 4IGN POLICY LEADER, WHERE d EXECUTIVE BRANCH hs DEVELOPED CLEAR DOMINANCE.d PRESIDENT MUST ALSO DELIVER A ST8 OF UNION ADDRESSED 2 CONGRESS evry YEAR, hs d POWER 2 APPOINT AMBASSADORS, SUPREME COURT & OTHER FEDERAL JUDGES. SOME COMP1NTS OF d EXECUTIVE OFﬁCE OF d PRESIDENT OPER8 OUTSIDE d WHITE HOUSE SUCH AS d NSA OR CIA. OTHERS, SUCH AS d CHIEF OF STAFF OR d PRESS SECRETARY OPER8 WITHIN d WHITE HOUSE.

d PROCESS 4 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS IS AS FOLLOWS:

PRIMARIES & CAUCUSES: EACH PARTY VOTES 4 d CANDID8 dat WILL REPRESENT dem. @ dis STAGE, EACH PARTY MAY HAVE MORE THAN A CANDID8.

N8ONAL CONVENTIONS: R HELD 2FINALIZE d SELECTION OF d PRESIDENTIAL NOMINEE. @ dis STAGE, d PARTY DECIDES WHO IS GOING 2 b d CANDID8 dat RUNS 4 OFFICE

GENERAL ELECTION: CANDID8S CAMPAIGN 2 GET d SUPPORT OF VOTERS wen ELECTIONS R HELD. VOTERS CHOOSE ELEC2RS, WHO REPRESENT dem & VOTE 4 d ST8’S PREFERRED CANDID8.

ELEC2R8 COLLEGE: EACH ST8 GETS 1 VOTE. wen VOTES R COUNTED, d CANDID8 dat GETS MOST VOTES IS d ELECTED PRESIDENT.

d CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

d PERSISTING PRINCIPLES OF d AMERICAN CONSTITUTION R: FEDERALISM, REPUBLICANISM, SEPAR8ON OF POWERS & SYSTEM OF CHECK & BALANCES.

REPUBLICANISM IS d BELIEF IN A GOVERNMENT WITHOUT ppl PRIVILEGED BY BIRTH. d CONSTITUTION SPECIﬁCALLY PROHIBITS INHERITED TITLES & d ESTABLISHMENT OF A ST8 RELIGION IN d US. IT ALSO GUARANTEES EACH ST8 IN d UNION A REPUBLICAN 4M OF GOVERNMENT.

FEDERALISM IS d POLITICAL SYSTEM IN WHICH d GOVERNING POWER IS SHARED btwn d N8ONAL GOVERNMENT & d ST8S, WHICH RESERVE MOST POWERS 2 THEMSELVES. d POWERS OF BOTH R LIMITED BY d RIGHT OF POPULAR SOVEREINGTY ESTABLISHED IN d PREAMBLE OF d CONSTITUTION & d BILL OF RIGHTS. d US hs A HIERARCHY OF LAW: d FEDERAL CONSTITUTION IS d COUNTRY’S SUPREME LAW. ACTS OF CONGRESS & LOCAL LAWS MUST CON4M 2 IT. ST8 & LOCAL LAWS MUST ALSO CON4M 2 d ST8’S CONSTITUTION. d FEDERAL SUPREME COURT IS d ﬁNAL INTERPRETER OF d US CONSTITUTION. d CONSTITUTION’S BROAD LANGUAGE hs ALLOWED d SUPREME COURT 2 EXPAND FEDERAL POWERS 2 AREAS ORIGINALLY lft 2 d ST8S. THERE4, d GOVERNMENT ACTIVITY MAY b ALLOWED BY d ST8S AL1, PERMITTED ONLY 2 d N8ONAL GOVERNMENT OR SHARED BY BOTH LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT.

SEPAR8ON OF POWERS(PROBABLE) REFERS 2 3 INDEPENDENT BRANCHES: EXECUTIVE, LEGISL8VE & JUDICIAL. NO PERSON SHOULD SERVE IN MORE THAN 1 @ d TIME. d PRESIDENT, SENA2RS & REPRESENT8VES R ELECTED BY SEPAR8 ELECTIONS dat OCCUR @ DIFFERENT TIMES. d AREAS dat ELECT dem R DIFFERENT & SO R d LENGTHS OF THEIR TERMS IN OFFICE. THUS, dey R LOYAL 2 DIFFERENT VOTERS & DEVELOP A DISSIMILAR PRIORITY. d CONSTITUTION SEPAR8S d BRANCHES BY LISTING d POWERS OF EACH. dis PREVENTS CONCENTR8ON OF POWER & CRE8S COOPER8ON AMONG dem.

CHECKS & BALANCES IS A SYSTEM IMPLEMENTED 2 SHARE d POWER. d PRESIDENT NOMIN8S FEDERAL JUDGES BUT d SEN8 MUST CONﬁRM THEIR APPOINTMENT. SENA2RIAL APPROVAL IS ALSO NEEDED 4 TRE8ES NEGOTI8D BY

d EXECUTIVE. d PRESIDENT CAN VE2 LEGISL8ON PASSED BY CONGRESS BUT IT CAN b IGNORED BY 2/3 MAJORITIES IN BOTH HOUSES. CONGRESS CAN REMOVE MEMBERS OF d OTHER BRANCHES thru ACCUS8ON BUT d PRESIDENT CAN PARDON ppl ACCUSED OF FEDERAL CRIMES.CONGRESS CAN RAISE M1Y ON TAXES & SPEND IT ON GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS. wen IMPLEMENTING LAWS, d PRESIDENT & EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS CAN CONTROL d USE OF FUNDS. CONGRESS CAN CRE8 OR ELIMIN8 ELEMENTS OF d EXECUTIVE BELOW d VICE PRESIDENT & d JUDICIAL BELOW d SUPREME COURT. ALSO, d SUPREME COURT CAN DECIDE WHETHER SOMETHING IS UNCONSTITUTIONAL & 4CE OTHER BRANCHES 2 REVISE THEIR ACTIONS. ol THESE CHECKS BALANCE POWER AMONG d BRANCHES.

CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE CAN b MADE thru AMENDMENTS 2 d FEDERAL CONSTITUTION, SUGGESTED BY 2/3 OF d CONGRESS OR 2/3 OF d ST8S. ne CHANGE MUST b R8ﬁED BY d LEGISLATURES OF d ST8S.

frm NEUTRALITY 2 ISOL8ONISM: 1776 – 1830(PROBABLE)

DURING dis TIME d US TRIED nt 2 4M ALLIANCES WITH gr8 POWERS & REMAIN NEUTRAL.AROUND 1800, EUROPEAN CONﬂICT HAD AN IMPACT ON AMERICAN COLONIES. dis MADE IT HARD 2 STABILIZE d NEW N8ON’S POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS & ECONOMY. GEORGE WASHING2N ST8D d 1796 FAREWELL ADDRESS WHICH CONSISTED OF AVOIDING MILITARY ALLIANCES & CULTIV8NG REL8ONSHIPS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES. wen d US 2OK SIDES IN d NAPOLEONIC WAR, d COST WAS TREMENDOUS & d LESSON WAS LEARNED. d CORE IDEAS REMAINED PART OF AMERICAN 4IGN POLICY til AFTER d 2nd WORLD WAR. d ALIEN & SEDITION ACTS WERE PASSED IN 1798 IN FEAR OF IMMIGRANTS’ LOYALTY 2 THEIR COUNTRY OF BIRTH. THESE ACTS ALLOWED DANGEROUS 4IGNERS 2 b DEPORTED, ﬁNED OF IMPRIS1D. btwn 1800 & 1820, MANY SPANISH COLONIES IN CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICA REBELLED & DECLARED THEIR INDEPENDENCE. AMERICA EXPRESSED ITS OPPOSITION 2 EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE IN L8N AMERICA thru d MONROE DOCTRINE, WHICH CONSISTED OF 3 PRINCIPLES:

NON-COLONIZ8ON: OPPOSED ne NEW COLONIES IN AMERICA.

NON-INTERVENTION: DEMANDED dat EUROPEAN POWERS nt GET INVOLVED IN NEW N8ONS’ AFFAIRS.

NON-INTERFERENCE: WOULD b OBSERVED AS A CONSEQUENCE OF EUROPE’S OBEDIENCE OF d 1st 2 PRINCIPLES & ST8S dat d US WOULD REMAIN UNINVOLVED IN d AFFAIRS OF d REMAINING COLONIES.

dis DOCTRINE TRANS4MED AMERICA’S NEUTRALITY 2 ISOL8ONISM & COMBINED IT WITH d COUNTRY’S SENSE OF HAVING A SPECIAL MISSION IN d WORLD.

frm EXPANSIONISM 2 IMPERIALISM: 1783 – 1914

DURING dis TIME, INTERNAL AFFAIRS REGARDING TERRI2RY, BORDERS, TRANSPORT SYSTEM AS WELL AS d SLAVERY ISSUE WERE d MAIN FOCUS IN d US. d CONDUCT OF 4IGN AFFAIRS WAS FOCUSED ON d EXPANSION OF TERRI2RY. IN d EARLY 19TH CENTURY, d US TRIPLED ITS TERRI2RY thru TRE8ES & PURCHASE OF LAND. MANY ppl CONSIDERED dis EXPANSIONISM LEGAL & UNAGGRESSIVE. EXTENDING d BENEFITS OF DEMOCRACY 2 LESS DEVELOPED PEOPLES SERVED AS AN EXCUSE 2 JUSTIFY d EXPANSIONISM. HOWEVER, IT CONSISTED OF WARS & OCCUP8ON BY 4CE, ESPECIALLY WITH N8VE AMERICANS. d INCREASE IN d COUNTRY’S TERRI2RY CRE8D A SENSE OF N8ONAL PRIDE.

BY d 1840S, AMERICA EXPANDED 2WARDS MEXICO & IT 2OK TEXAS BY 4CE, WHICH RESULTED IN d 1848 TREATY dat SETTLED d BORDER WITH MEXICO & ADDED CALI4NIA & MOST OF d MOUNTAIN ST8S 2 d US TERRI2RY. IN d DECADES AFTER d CIVIL WAR, EXPANSIONISTS GAINED SUPPORT frm DIFFERENT SOURCES. BUSINESSMEN WANTED MORE OVERSEAS MARKETS, MILITAR STR8GISTS WANTED OVERSEAS BASES & RELIGIOUS LEADERS WANTED 2 GO ON “CIVILIZING MISSIONS”. 4 THESE REASONS & 4 FEAR OF LOSING STRENGTH, d US 4IGN POLICY BECAME IMPERIALIST. AMERICA USED HARD POWER 2 IMPOSE ITS CONTROL OVERSEAS USING BOTH 4MALLY (COLONIZ8ON & OCCUP8ON) & IN4MALLY (THREATS & ECONOMIC DOMIN8ON) STR8GIES.

IN 1898, d US DECLARED WAR ON SPAIN AS AN IMPERIALIST POWER dat WAS STEALING CUBAN FREEDOM. d US ACQUIRED ECONOMIC CONTROL OVER CUBA & d RIGHT 2 INTERVENE IN ITS AFFAIRS. IT ALSO ACQUIRED PUER2 RICO, GUAM ISLAND & d PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. AMERICAN TRADE EXPANDED RAPIDLY, ESPECIALLY IN L8N AMERICA & ASIA. HAWAII & SAMOA WERE ANNEXED, WHICH SERVED AS BASES 4 FURTHER EXPANSION. dey INSTIG8D d SUCCESS OF PANAMA IN A REVOLT AGAINST COLOMBIA 2 SECURE d RIGHT OVER d PANAMA CANAL. A YEAR L8R, PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT ANNOUNCED d REVISION OF d MONROE DOCTRINE. dis REVISION JUSTIﬁED d INTERVENTION OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF L8N AMERICAN COUNTRIES IF THEIR ECONOMY OR POLITICS BECAME UNSTABLE. btwn 1900 & 1917, d US INTERVENED IN 6 DIFFERENT L8N AMERICAN COUNTRIES thru PRESIDENTIAL ACTION. ANTI- IMPERIALIST CRITICS OPPOSED OVERSEAS EXPANSIONS. AS A RESULT OF THEIR EF4TS, CUBA WAS nt ANNEXED & d PHILIPPINES WERE PROMISED THEIR FREEDOM.

d COLD WAR ERA: 1946-1992IN 1945, d SOVIET UNION SET UP A PRO-COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT IN EASTERN EUROPE, CRE8NG A DIVISION btwn WESTERN & EASTERN EUROPE 2 WHICH CHURCHILL REFERRED AS “d IRON CURTAIN”. d SOVIET IDEOLOGY WAS A THREAT 2 d US & 2 DEMOCR8C INSTITUTIONS ACCORDING 2 PRESIDENT TRUMAN. THUS, d STAGE WAS SET 4 DIRECT AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN INTERNAL CONFLICT & WARS AROUND d WORLD.

IN d L8 1940S, wen d SOVIETS REJECTED INSPECTIONS PLANS 2 EN4CE A BAN ON NUCLEAR WEAPONS, d US REACTED BY EXPANDING A2MIC RESEARCH. d N8ONAL SECURITY ACT OF 1947, REORGANIZED FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 2 CENTRALIZE MILITARY POWER & CRE8D d DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (d PENTAGON), d N8ONAL SECURITY AGENCY (NSA) & d CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA). A REPORT ISSUED BY d N8ONAL SECURITY AGENCY ST8D dat d US HAD d RESPONSIBILITY 2 LEAD d FREE WORLD. SECRETARY OF ST8 MARSHALL INITI8D d MARSHALL PLAN dat CONSISTED OF REVITALIZING EUROPE’S ECONOMY 2 PROVIDE MARKETS 4 US PRODUCTS & STRENGTHEN RESISTANCE AGAINST COMMUNISM. d WORLD WAS DIVIDED IN 2 WARRING CAMPS THRE8NING WITH NUCLEAR DESTRUCTION. THERE4, d US REVERSED ITS REFUSAL 2 ESTABLISH MILITARY ALLIANCES & BECAME INVOLVED IN d FIGHT AGAINST COMMUNISM. d MOST IMPORTANT MILITARY ALLIANCE WAS IN 1950 wen NA2 WAS FOUNDED.

IN d 1950S, d FEAR OF COMMUNISM SET d STAGE 4 SENA2R JOSEPH MCCARTHY’S HUNT 4 AMERICANS INVOLVED IN “UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES” AS SPIES OF 2OLS OF d SOVIETS. HIS ACCUS8ONS AGAINST GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS WERE UNPRECEDENTED.IN d 1960S, d CIA’S INVOLVEMENT IN d BAY OF PIG AFFAIR & d CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS RAISED COLD WAR TENSIONS. AFTER dis, HOWEVER, REL8ONS btwn d 2 SUPERPOWERS BEGAN 2 IMPROVE. IN 1970, NIXON INITI8D d POLICY OF PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE & d GRADUAL REDUCTION OF NUCLEAR ARSENALS, WHICH c….ITH PRESIDENTS WHO CAME AFTER HIM. AN UNDERSTANDING OF d 2 N8ONS WAS REACHED IN 1991 wen BOTH COUNTRIES CONDEMNED d IRAQI OCCUP8ON OF KUWAIT.IN ASIA, d US HAD COMMITTED 2 CONTAINING COMMUNISM IN KOREA, VIETNAM, CAMBODIA & LAOS. d VIETNAM WAR CAUSED MASSIVE ANTI-WAR PROTESTS @ HOME & ABROAD. AN IMPORTANT TURNING POINT IN AMERICA’S 4IGN POLICY CAME AFTER PRESIDENT NIXON OPENED COMMUNIC8ON WITH d LEADERS OF MAINLAND CHINA, TAKING ADVANTAGE OF A SPLIT btwn CHINA & d SOVIET UNION. AMERICAN POLICY REGARDING L8N AMERICA VARIED WITH d TEMPERATURE OF d COLD WAR. STILL, d COMMITMENT 2 CONTAINMENT hs LED 2 US SUPPORT 2 RIGHT-WING REGIMES, WHICH R OFTEN MORE SUPPORTIVE OF “STABILITY” THAN HUMAN RIGHTS.IN d 1980S, PRESIDENT REAGAN ALSO PURSUED PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE, nt WITHOUT PROCLAIMING d OPPOSITION 2 d COMMUNIST “EVIL EMPIRE”. HE ALSO SIGNED A SERIES OF AGREEMENTS WITH d REPUBLIC OF CHINA & EVENTUALLY ACCEPTED FRIENDLY OVERTURES WITH d GENERAL SECRETARY OF d COMMUNIST PARTY IN d USSR, MIKHAIL GORBACHEV, WHICH LED 2 DISARMAMENT TRE8ES. IN NOVEMBER 1989, d SYMBOL OF A DIVIDED EUROPE, d BERLIN WALL, WAS DEMOLISHED BY A CHEERING LARGE GROUP OF ppl frm BOTH SIDES. IN d FOLLOWING SUMMER, d 2 GERMANIES REUNITED. IN 1992, d SOVIET UNION SPLIT IN2 A FEDER8ON OF REPUBLICS.

SOCIAL SERVICES til d 1930S, d U.S. LACKED SOCIAL SERVICES. INDUSTRIALIZ8ON & URBANIZ8ON IN d 19TH CENTURY LED 2 WEALTH 4 SOME BUT POVERTY 4 MANY. MOST SOCIAL ASSISTANCE WAS PRIV8 OR frm CHARITIES, AS MANY AMERICANS WERE WARY OF GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIAL AFFAIRS. d gr8 DEPRESSION REVEALED d nid 4 MORE SUPPORT, & PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT’S “NEW DEAL” AIMED 2 IMPROVE d ECONOMY & PROVIDE SOCIAL PROTECTION. dis LED 2 d CRE8ON OF GOVERNMENT AID PROGRAMS LIKE SOCIAL SECURITY IN 1935.

AFTER 1930, FEDERAL & ST8 GOVERNMENTS BECAME MORE INVOLVED IN SOCIAL POLICIES, ESPECIALLY AFTER WORLD WAR II wen PUBLICLY FUNDED PROGRAMS EXPANDED. VETERANS WERE PROVIDED WITH EDUC8ON, HEALTHCARE, & HOUSING. A CULTURE OF DEMANDING ENTITLEMENT 2 SOCIAL SERVICES EMERGED, WITH A BELIEF dat d U.S. SHOULD CARE 4 ITS CITIZENS IN nid.

frm d 1960S 2 d 1980S, MORE FEDERAL & ST8 FUNDS WENT IN2 PUBLIC SOCIAL SERVICES LIKE MEDICARE & MEDICAID. PRESIDENT JOHNSON INTRODUCED INITI8VES 2 COMBAT POVERTY & UNEMPLOYMENT thru EDUC8ON & JOB TRAINING. HOWEVER, THESE EF4TS DID nt ESTABLISH AN AMERICAN WELFARE ST8.SUBSEQUENT PRESIDENTS HAD VARYING ATTITUDES 2WARDS SOCIAL SERVICES & WELFARE. PRESIDENT REAGAN AIMED 2 CUT PUBLIC SPENDING COSTS IN d 1980S. PRESIDENT CLIN2N’S ATTEMPT @ UNIVERSAL HEALTHCARE IN 1993 FACED OPPOSITION & FAILED. GEORGE W. BUSH PROPOSED PRIV8ZING PART OF SOCIAL SECURITY 2 MANAGE COSTS, & PRESIDENT OBAMA FACED CONGRESS’ OPPOSITION IN IMPLEMENTING A NEW PUBLIC HEALTHCARE SYSTEM.

Early Encounters Between Europeans and Native Americans: History and Impact