DNA, Genes, and the Human Genome: A Comprehensive Guide
DNA: the main component of the genetic material of most organisms and, together with RNA, forms the nucleic acids.
Nucleotides are the smaller units that make up nucleic acids. Their repetition generates a sequence, and it is in this sequence that the genetic material resides.
Form of DNA: it has a wound structure that is super compact and forms chromosomes.
DNA is found: in prokaryotic organisms, it is in the cytoplasm, and in eukaryotes, it is in the cell nucleus.
Function of DNA in cells: to encode and transmit instructions for the development and operation of a living being. These instructions are needed for the synthesis of macromolecules.
RNA function: it acts as a messenger, responsible for copying DNA information and bringing it to the ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA is part of the structure of ribosomes, while transfer RNA carries amino acids to the ribosomes to build the protein chain.
Gene: each of the storage units found in DNA.
Genotype: the set of all characters transmitted in our genes.
Phenotype: the genotype is expressed in the specific form of an individual’s appearance.
Genome: the set of genes of a species. All genes of a species.
Rosalind Franklin discovered the helical shape of DNA using X-ray diffraction. Watson and Crick took credit for her discovery, and she died of ovarian cancer due to limited protection against radioactivity.
Mitosis is the process of cell division. Thanks to it, single-celled organisms reproduce, and a mother cell gives rise to identical daughter cells. Its purpose is to increase the number of cells.
DNA replication is the process of doubling the DNA to produce a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell, resulting in two identical copies of the same DNA strand.
It happens during the time period between two mitoses (interphase).
If replication is not correct, we talk about genetic mutations, and the genetic information is not transmitted properly.
When the semiconservative replication process is finished, we will have two full sets of DNA, each of which will have an original strand and a newly synthesized strand.
Proteins are responsible for the functionality of the cell and the maintenance of cellular metabolism.
The two germ lines that arise from the zygote are the somatic line cells, which give rise to functional and organic systems that will maintain the life of the organism, and the germ cells, which give rise to reproductive cells. The first divide by mitosis, and the latter by meiosis.
Diploid: contain the normal number of chromosomes in a species. Chromosomes duplicate.
Haploid: they have half the normal number of chromosomes. Chromosomes are simple.
Difference between mitosis and meiosis: mitosis is the division of stem cells and gives rise to two cells identical to the parent. Meiosis involves two cell divisions, but genetic information is exchanged to create variability.
Transcription is a process by which the information contained in the DNA sequence is transferred into a protein sequence using multiple RNA molecules as facilitators.
Translation is a process that occurs during protein synthesis in ribosomes after the decoding of the encrypted message in messenger RNA into triplets.
Genetic code: a standard translation between the sequence of nucleotides and amino acids. According to this code, three nucleotides correspond to an amino acid.
The universal genetic code is ambiguous; a triplet can only encode one amino acid in all living organisms, while an amino acid can be encoded by several triplets.
Biotechnology is any biological process used to obtain goods and services from living organisms. It has been used since antiquity.
Genetic engineering is a technology that has enabled the development of many technical processes, with it, you get goods and services.
Fields of genetic engineering amplification: are the new forms of drug synthesis, genetic modification of organisms, and the development of a new form of medicine that uses molecular diagnosis and gene therapy.
The first green revolution was a biotechnology revolution that led to improvements in key plant cultivation for human consumption by improving hybridization techniques and mechanization.
Recombinant DNA technology allows us to cut a specific DNA fragment from an individual we are interested in and insert it into the DNA of another individual.
GMOs or GMOs: are organisms whose phenotype has been manipulated, expressing a trait they did not previously have. Examples include agriculture and transgenic animals.
We can obtain a large amount of DNA from a small sample using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). By taking a small sample, copies are made to form an entire strand.
Applications of PCR: obtaining sufficient DNA of a gene previously selected for sequencing, evolutionary PCR. Applications allow studies of extinct organisms and genes, determination of the genetic fingerprint. This technique can be used to determine if two individuals share the same parent.
Sequencing of a gene: After isolating and cloning a DNA fragment, DNA can be sequenced, meaning the sequence of nucleotides of the obtained DNA fragment can be read. This allows the identification of possible mutations and diseases associated with alterations.
Amniocentesis: is one of the methods to identify anomalies in the fetus. It involves obtaining amniotic fluid for testing. (Invasive diagnostic technique).
Gene therapy: is the introduction of healthy genetic material into diseased cells.
Genetic Pharmacology: consists of tailoring medicines based on the patient’s genetic profile or the characteristics of the pathogen.
Paternity tests are based on comparing the DNA of the child and the alleged father.
The Human Genome Project aims to identify the 20,000 to 25,000 genes that make up our genome.
The Human Genome Project was undertaken as a public company. The HGP was made possible through the efforts of the International Consortium for Sequencing the Human Genome, with the participation of research centers in over 20 countries.
Assisted reproductive techniques aim to facilitate the meeting of gametes, leading to fertilization. They help couples have children through artificial insemination. Artificial insemination is the procedure that involves inserting medical semen or sperm into the uterus of a woman coinciding with the release of an egg. In-vitro fertilization is performed when infertility and sterility problems are more complex. The woman’s egg is removed and fertilized in a test tube with sperm. The resulting embryos are implanted in the woman’s uterus.
Dwindling of male gametes: the reason is unknown, but researchers are inclined to believe that alcohol, stress, snuff, and negative environmental contamination play a role.
Stem cells are cells capable of giving rise to any other cell. Adult mammals have stem cells, but with less potential.
Clone: a body of identical origin, since they are identical copies of an adult.
The Dolly sheep was not cloned from a single parent. The nucleus of an egg from one sheep was implanted into the egg of another sheep, and the resulting egg was implanted into a third sheep. The egg donor, the nucleus donor, and the sheep that gave birth were all involved.
Usefulness of cloning: therapeutic purposes: obtaining stem cells and tissues or organs for reparative or regenerative medicine. Reproductive purposes: obtaining a human being.
Bioethics is the study of values or principles that should govern the problems that arise in life issues.
Human dignity is the right use of individual freedom.
Quality of life: physical and mental health, and meeting basic needs.