Descartes’ Philosophy: Ideas, Knowledge, and Morality
Descartes’ Theory of Ideas and Reality
The application of the first principle of the method and the use of intuition lead to the first truth. This truth faces the problem of deducing the existence of the material world. Descartes seeks to prove this existence based solely on the existence of thought and addresses the issue through his theory of ideas. He affirms that we think about ideas, not things themselves. Ideas are like a graphical representation of things, but to conceive an idea as an object of thought only guarantees the mental existence of this idea; it provides no assurance that the content of that idea has material reality.
Proving Ideas Correspond to Physical Reality
How can we prove that ideas correspond to physical reality? Descartes analyzes their nature:
- As modes of thought, or mental acts, they are all equal.
- As images that represent something, they have a representative or objective content, and in this aspect, they differ in content.
Ideas differ in their content, and some possess more reality than others. Descartes categorizes ideas into three types:
- Adventitious Ideas: These are external, not originating from thought itself. They seem to come from the outside due to sensitive perception (though this has not yet been proven).
- Factitious Ideas: The mind constructs these from other ideas, created by the imagination.
- Innate Ideas: These are inherent to the self, ideas of reason that sprout naturally, spontaneously, and immediately in our thinking. Their existence corresponds to our very nature.
With the affirmation of innate ideas, we find the fundamental thesis of rationalism. It is these ideas that allow us to move from the existence of the thinking subject to material reality. If we find innate ideas from which we can infer an objective existence from their subjective existence as an idea, then we can bridge this gap. For instance, the innate idea of God, an infinite idea, is a prime example of an innate idea.
17th Century Epistemology: Rationalism vs. Empiricism
Rationalism
Rationalism asserts that true knowledge is attained through reason. Mathematics serves as the origin and foundational model for knowledge, as only through its principles can one be certain of what is obtained and ascertain reality. Rationalist philosophy applies a deductive system, where reasoning reaches a necessary conclusion derived from first and general propositions.
Empiricism
Empiricism posits that knowledge originates from and is based on sensory experience. It employs induction, drawing universal conclusions from particular experiences.
Skepticism
Skepticism, in contrast, argues that true knowledge is impossible to achieve, contending that reason is weak and incapable of reaching certainty.
Principles and Modes of Human Knowledge
The Nature of Reason
Reason is fundamentally equal in all human beings. However, we conduct our thoughts through different paths and do not always consider the same things, leading to varied conclusions.
Cartesian Ways of Knowing: Intuition and Deduction
- Intuition: A natural light of reason through which we grasp immediately, and without error or doubt, simple and true ideas because they are self-evident. This applies to “simple natures.”
- Deduction: The logical chaining of evidence, proceeding from starting points found in these simple natures.
Descartes’ Provisional Morality
Recognizing that philosophical inquiry might leave some practical matters unresolved, Descartes proposed a provisional morality. This set of standards allowed him to act decisively in daily life while his philosophical system was still under construction. These rules aimed to guide his conduct and enable him to live well:
- Rule 1: Adhere to Laws and Customs. To obey the laws and customs of his country, consistently preserving his religion, and adhering to the more moderate opinions, furthest from excess.
- Rule 2: Be Resolute in Action. To be as firm and resolute in his actions as possible. Acting, even if it means committing an error, is preferable to the paralysis of inaction.
- Rule 3: Control Thoughts and Judgments. To accustom himself to believe that nothing is entirely within our power except our thoughts. This principle directly distinguishes what depends on us from what does not. By gaining mastery over our thoughts and judgments, we can achieve happiness.
Conclusion on Provisional Morality
Descartes recommends choosing the best among the various occupations of men, which he identifies as dedicating oneself to philosophy. This involves cultivating reason and striving to arrive at the truth by following his method. While this path runs the risk of error, it is preferable to initial uncertainty, which might lead us to avoid any action for fear of error and remain in a state of paralysis.