Descartes, Idealism, and Materialism: Foundations of Reality
René Descartes and Cartesian Dualism
Descartes, a prominent modern philosopher of the 17th century (Baroque era), argues that there are two distinct realities: a mental reality, known as res cogitans (the soul or thinking substance), and a material reality, known as res extensa (extended substance). His primary aim was to dismantle the false knowledge acquired through traditional schooling.
The Method of Doubt
Descartes created a new method in philosophy: methodical doubt, which involves doubting everything. He sought to apply the deductive method of mathematics to philosophy, moving from specific data to general conclusions. By doubting everything, he aimed to find an unquestionable truth that could not be refuted, which would serve as the beginning of modern philosophy.
He questioned the reliability of:
- The Senses: Once the senses deceive you, they cannot be trusted.
- Sleep/Wakefulness: We cannot guarantee that we are not dreaming.
- External Knowledge: The existence of the natural world.
- The Evil God/Deceiver: The possibility of a powerful entity deceiving us about reality.
The only thing he could not doubt was the act of doubting itself. If he doubts, he thinks; and if he thinks, he exists. This led to the foundation of true knowledge and reality.
The Foundation of Reality: Cogito Ergo Sum
The fundamental principle of reality, the starting point for Descartes, is: “I think, therefore I exist” (Cogito ergo sum). This thought is considered an unquestionable principle of realism. Descartes believed that to understand reality, one must find similar, self-evident principles. He concluded that reality is dualistic, composed of thought and matter.
Idealism: Reality in Ideas
Idealism is a philosophical school that posits reality resides in ideas (mental images), often described as a blend of sensuality and spirituality. Idealists claim that ideas are the condition of possibility for knowing the truth; we are born with innate ideas that allow us to understand reality.
Static Idealism (Plato)
The greatest representative of Static Idealism is Plato. According to Plato, reality is divided into two realms:
- The Sensible World: What we see and perceive through the senses.
- The World of Ideas: The true, real world, which serves as the foundation for the sensory world.
The World of Ideas is static and eternal. Our soul, which resides there, falls into the body, becomes corrupted, and forgets these perfect ideas. The concepts of things do not change over time; ideas are eternal.
Dynamic Idealism (Hegel)
Hegel believed that ideas change over time and are realized through history. Ideas are not located in a transcendent realm but exist within humanity. Depending on the historical period, ideas mutate through a system called the dialectic, which is divided into three stages:
- Thesis: An initial idea or proposition.
- Antithesis: The opposing idea or contradiction.
- Synthesis: The resolution or mixture of the thesis and antithesis, which then becomes the new thesis.
Example: Our father might be the thesis, our mother the antithesis, and their children the synthesis, who then become the new thesis for the next generation.
Materialism: Independent Reality
Materialism asserts that reality exists independently of human beings, meaning that beliefs, ideas, and consciousness depend on material existence. This is a realistic perspective, opposing Idealism.
Naturalist Materialism (Democritus)
Democritus was the first materialist. He argued that the sole basis of reality consists of particles called atoms. What we think and what we feel are dependent on the arrangement and interaction of these atoms.
Historical Materialism (Karl Marx)
Marx adapted Hegel’s dialectical method to analyze society. According to Marx, the reality we observe is composed of two fundamental elements:
- Economic Infrastructure: Refers to all processes of production of material goods, money, and matter.
- Ideological Superstructure: Refers to culture, ideas, feelings, beliefs, laws, and justice.
According to Marx, the ideas and justice of a society are determined by the economic infrastructure. Changes in money and matter determine the ideas and beliefs of human beings.