Demographic, Political, and Economic Crisis of 14th-Century Europe
The Bubonic Plague and its Impact
The bubonic plague, or Black Death, originated in Asia and spread to Europe through trade ships carrying flea-infested rats. Its cause was unknown at the time, with theories ranging from corrupted air or water to divine punishment. Combating the plague involved cleaning streets, burying bodies, isolating the sick, and burning fragrant woods. People also used talismans, amulets, and religious processions. The plague affected all social classes, even kings like Alfonso XI of Castile. In Spain, it entered through the Levant and devastated the country, killing a third of the population. This mortality had a profound psychological impact, influencing art and literature, notably the Dances of Death, where Death invited people of all social classes to dance.
Food prices rose due to labor shortages, which, in turn, led to higher wages. Demographically, the countryside depopulated as people migrated to cities seeking safety, leaving villages deserted in Castile and England. The 14th century also experienced poor harvests due to climate change, leading to malnutrition and preventing grain storage. Transportation was scarce and difficult, with muddy roads hindering the movement of grain between regions, resulting in both abundance and scarcity in neighboring areas. Transport relied mainly on horses, with boats used only in coastal regions.
However, the 15th century saw economic recovery after the plague. Sheep livestock increased significantly due to the export of merino wool, with flocks growing from one million in 1308 to five million in 1508. This was managed through transhumance and export-oriented agriculture, focusing on olives and grapes.
Political Crisis in Castile and Aragon
Castile: Pedro I, aiming to strengthen the monarchy, sought support from the capitalist bourgeoisie and Jews, which angered the nobility. This opposition led to a civil war, influenced by the Hundred Years’ War, with England and France supporting Pedro I and his half-brother Henry, respectively. The war ended with Pedro I’s murder by Henry, aided by Bertrand du Guesclin. Henry II then granted privileges to the nobles who supported him, ushering in an era of noble dominance in Castile. Subsequent kings, like Juan II and Enrique IV, also faced challenges from the powerful nobility.
Aragon: Following the death of Martin I without an heir, nine representatives chose Ferdinand of Castile as the new king, uniting the crowns of Castile and Aragon. This angered the Catalan nobility, leading to civil wars in Catalonia, where peasants, known as remences, revolted against the nobility with the king’s support.
The Crown of Aragon expanded in the Mediterranean from the late 13th to the 16th centuries, conquering Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples. Catalan mercenary troops, called almogávares, played a key role in these conquests. Initially hired by the Byzantine Emperor, they later seized the duchies of Athens and Neopatria. Catalonia thrived commercially, with Barcelona rivaling Venice and Genoa in importance. It exported textiles, hides, and skins, and imported spices from North Africa, Byzantium, Syria, and Egypt, also trading with Flanders. The Catalan empire reached its peak in the 14th century, but declined in the 15th due to civil wars, shifting commercial dominance to Valencia.