Demographic and Agricultural Shifts: Catalysts of the First Industrial Revolution
1. Factors
The story begins with two significant changes in demography and agriculture.
Demographic Revolution
Under the old regime, the ‘old demographic cycle’ was characterized by:
- A high birth rate offset by a high mortality rate, resulting in slow and limited growth.
- Catastrophic mortality caused by wars, famine, and epidemics.
- Strikingly high child mortality.
These patterns, initially observed in England and later in France, Belgium, and some northern German states, began to change. The birth rate remained high, but the mortality rate dropped sharply due to advances in medicine and hygiene (sewers, clean water, etc.). This led to a massive population increase and a rural exodus.
Agricultural Revolution
Under the old system, agriculture was the dominant but backward and unproductive sector. Important changes occurred:
- Disappearance of fallow land and introduction of crop rotation.
- Enclosure of properties, leading to landless farmers moving to cities and more efficient land use.
- Use of fertilizers.
- Seed selection.
- Planting fodder for livestock.
2. Transformations
- New Energy Source: Coal replaced wood and charcoal, providing greater power and lower production costs.
- New Industries: The textile industry shifted from wool to cotton, with new machinery enabling mass production. The steel industry adopted coal, the steam engine, and blast furnaces, meeting demand for rails, machinery, and architecture.
- Transportation Revolution: Traditional road transport was replaced by railroads, and sailing ships by steamships.
- Communications Revolution: Advances included the optical and electric telegraph, and the first underwater telegraph cables, facilitating national and international markets, stock exchanges, and the press.
- Innovations in Work: Guilds disappeared, replaced by the ‘industrial production system’ based on machinery, specialization, division of labor, and the factory system.
- Industrial Machinery: Key inventions included machines for multi-purpose thread manufacturing, power looms, and the Watt steam engine, applied to transport, mines, and other industries.
3. Key Countries
Great Britain was the main protagonist of the First Industrial Revolution, benefiting from early demographic and agricultural revolutions, access to cotton and coal, and the patented steam engine. From 1830, the revolution spread to neighboring countries like Belgium, France, and some northern German states (forming the Zollverein). The rest of Europe and the world experienced it in the second half of the 19th century.
4. Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
The consequences were threefold: social, labor, and economic.
Social
Estates and privileges disappeared, and social classes, particularly the bourgeoisie, became more important.
Labor
Guilds and workshops disappeared, replaced by factories with two main groups: entrepreneurs and the proletariat.
Economic
Physiocracy and mercantilism were replaced by economic liberalism, championed by Adam Smith. In his book “The Wealth of Nations,” Smith advocated for:
- Free trade and non-state intervention.
- Defense of private property.
- A self-regulating market based on supply and demand.
- Accumulation of capital.