Defining Key Philosophical Movements: From Scholasticism to Existentialism
Nihilism: Meaning and Historical Context
The term Nihilism comes from the Latin, meaning ‘from nothing’ or ‘nothingness’. It is a philosophical current that is generally used to disqualify any doctrine that denies or does not recognize important realities or values.
The nihilism of despair emerged in Russia during the 19th century following the failure of the reforms of Alexander II. These nihilists sought to establish a society based on scientific grounds (inspired by Comte) and were sometimes confused with anarchists.
Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (19th century) famously used the term in his philosophy, distinguishing between active and passive nihilism.
Marxism: Historical Materialism and Class Struggle
Marxism is a dialectically materialist conception of history developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. It is constituted by:
- Historical Materialism.
- An economic analysis of capitalism, including the surplus value theory.
- The concept of the class struggle as the engine of history.
Marx’s ideas have been profoundly influential in philosophy and contemporary social science. Although some specific theories have been disproven, its core framework remains present and debated.
Phenomenology: Husserl’s Method of Pure Experience
Phenomenology is a philosophical current founded by Edmund Husserl and his followers, which focuses on the description of phenomena or sets of them.
It has proven to be a highly effective and intuitive method in many research fields within the human sciences, such as the phenomenology of pain, death, joy, and passions—i.e., explaining any human behavior “from within.”
The Phenomenological Method
The method consists of suspending judgment or “bracketing” the world (epoché) to reach an experience prior to the linguistic enunciation of pure phenomenal reality. It functions as both a method and a doctrine, drawing influence from realism, existentialism, and the metaphysics of Nicolai Hartmann.
Husserl defines the phenomenon as a manifestation of the ideal in the thing, which gives the current its name.
Scholasticism: Medieval Philosophy and Theology
The term Scholasticism refers to the philosophy taught in schools for the training of clerics, spanning roughly the 9th through the 13th centuries. The concept is used to denote a specific way of understanding philosophy and the philosophical method. It is characterized by:
- Philosophy serving as an auxiliary discipline of theology, acting as preparation for understanding theological concepts.
- Reliance on commentary and discussion of classical authors (e.g., Aristotle).
This method was applied primarily to Christian philosophy during the medieval period (11th to 13th centuries). Key figures include St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Anselm, and William of Ockham.
Positivism: Science, Empiricism, and the Rejection of Metaphysics
Auguste Comte is recognized as the founder of Positivism. This philosophical current is characterized by:
- A rejection of metaphysics.
- A strong appreciation for science (similar to Logical Positivism).
Positivism seeks to adhere only to the “positive”—that which can be captured by the senses and scientifically tested. Strictly defined, Positivism is a theory of knowledge that rejects the search for ultimate causes (science answers the “how” but not the “why”).
It defends utilitarianism from a social and political standpoint, and its overall stance is generally agnostic.
Existentialism: Existence Precedes Essence
Existentialism is a philosophical current that emerged in the 1930s in Germany, largely in response to the personal and cultural crises caused by the World Wars. Its central tenet is that existence precedes essence.
The German existentialists (e.g., Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger) often adopted a pessimistic tone. French Existentialism, championed by figures like Jean-Paul Sartre, insisted on the absurdity of the world and the idea that man is thrown into chaos.
The movement gained significant cultural importance thanks to the literary works of Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Simone de Beauvoir, influencing lifestyle and thought. Key philosophical influences include Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche.