Decolonization: The Process of Independence in Former Colonies
- **1.1. What Was Decolonization?**
Decolonization was the process that created politically independent states in the territories of the former colonies (in Asia and Africa). It developed during the 20th century after the Second World War and the Conference of Bandung in 1955.
• In April 1955, representatives from twenty-nine governments of Asian and African nations gathered in Bandung, Indonesia, to discuss peace and the role of the Third World in the Cold War, economic development, and decolonization.
1.2. Causes of the Decolonization Process
Internal factors:
- Population growth multiplied the force and efficacy of nationalist movements.
- Economic development and modernization of the colonial territories.
- New indigenous elites, educated in the West within ideas of democracy and freedom, but excluded from the administrative and political posts in the colony.
External factors:
- The two World Wars, in which many colonial troops intervened.
- The rise of nationalism and anti-colonial movements.
- The support of the US and the USSR, which wanted to establish trading and political relations with the colonies that belonged to other countries.
- The Bandung Conference in 1955.
- Panafricanism: in 1963 the Organisation for African Unity was created, in which African countries committed to help each other.
2.1. The Decolonization Process
Middle Eastern Decolonization
The decolonization process had several phases:
- The first stage (1945-1954) started in the Middle East and Asia during the Second World War and accelerated when it ended. In the Middle East, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan became independent. Moreover, the British mandate over Palestine ended, and a large part of its territory became the State of Israel. In Asia, the United Kingdom accepted the independence of India in 1947, Indonesia in 1949, and France left Indochina in 1954.
Africa: Political Status in 1960
The second stage (1955-1964) started with the Bandung Conference and affected Africa. Also, Libya, as an Italian colony, had become sovereign in 1951. In 1956, France recognized the independence of Morocco and Tunisia but tried to stay in Algeria, which led to a long war that ended with its independence in 1962. In sub-Saharan Africa, most colonies were British (Kenya or Nigeria); French colonies like Madagascar or Mauritania and Belgian colonies like Congo became independent this stage. In 1961, South Africa declared itself a republic. But the apartheid regime lasted until 1994, when the laws that discriminated against the black population were abolished.
The third stage (1965-1994) affected the southern zone of Africa and was quite late. In 1975, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique became independent from Portugal. In 1990, Namibia became independent.
Decolonization Models
There are two types of decolonization depending on the violence of the process:
Decolonization without war: When the metropolis understood that it was useless to resist a historical process that could not be reversed. Principally, it occurred in the British Empire, which created the Commonwealth in 1931 as a manner of maintaining links with the former colonies. But this does not mean that there were not conflicts.
Decolonization with war: It occurred when the metropolis refused to accept the situation and had an armed conflict with the colonized people. This was the case in part of the French Empire (Algeria and Indochina), the Dutch Empire (Indonesia), and the Portuguese Empire (Angola and Mozambique).
3. Decolonization in Asia
The process started at the end of the 19th century when different nationalist movements started to emerge in the colonies, following Western ideas. The process did not develop until 1945 and was marked by the difficult internal conditions of numerous zones with many ethnic, religious, and social divisions.
3.1. Middle East
The Arab territories that composed it depended on the League of Nations. It entrusted its administration, in mandates, to the United Kingdom and France after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the First World War. The existence of oil in some of these zones caused a rivalry between France and Britain, which divided the territory. This created disputes such as the war between the Jews and Arabs and the conflict for the control of petrol and the Suez Canal.
3.3. South Asia
In India, nationalist movements under leaders like Gandhi pushed for independence, leading to the partition in 1947 into India and Pakistan. Bangladesh later separated from Pakistan in 1971. Other South Asian regions gained independence through armed struggle, like Indonesia from Holland in 1949, and Indochina, divided into Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam after the Geneva Accords in 1954, leading to the Vietnam War.
4. DECOLONISATION OF AFRICA
The decolonisation of Africa was different and faster tan other processess, because of:The repercusion of the Bandung.Conference In 1961, the UN created the Decolonisation Committee to support the process iThe scold Wat the US and USSR, involved The xperienc ef numerous armed
4.1. NORTHERN AFRICA
Northern Africa was occupied by France and United Kingdom but also by Italy Algeria first French colony in against te trelles colons, that lastes until De Gaulle recoonised te new state In 1962, organised as a democratic and popular Lybia an italian rodapendent n 1951
The black population mobilised against segregation in 1923.In 1923 the African National Congress was created, whose leaders were persecuted and imprisoned. Nelson Mandela was in prison 1962-1990.In 1961, it was proclaimed the Republic of South Africa with the Independence of the British Empire.The White South Africa elite continued to apply apartheid. In the 1970s protests increased against apartheid
The end of the Cold War:And the isolation of South Africa brought the end of the apartheid.1990-1991.Nelson Mandela was released from prison and free elections were held in April 1994.Nelson Mandela became president of a new republic in which all citizens had the same rights.
5.3. THE NONALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM)
Origin of the NAM.Conference organised in 1947 in New Delhi by Nehru (Indian president) It was formalised in the Conference of Bandung in 1955.It comprised Asian and African countries and the main leaders: Nehru, Sukarno, Nasser and Tito
Main leaders of the NAM: Marshall Tito, President of Yugoslavia, who broke with the USSR and establish his own socialism. Nerhu, President of India, demanded and important role for his country and wanted to make a strategic space in the Indian Ocean. Sukarno, Presidente of Indonesia, who defended anti-colonial and anti-Western values. Nasser, the President of Egypt, who ended the Egyptian monarchy and started a socialista stage.
The objectives were:To contribute to the equality of people. Assistance plans for the economic and cultural development of por countries. Condemn colonialism. To collaborate with the national liberation movement. To create a diplomatic third way outside the confrontation between the USSR and US. To defened neutrality against the two superpowers
The NAM organised conferences: The Jakarta Conference in 1992 was the first one after the end of the Cold War.It presented a change in the strategy of the member countries, though they defended the neutral position that they have always maintained.Today, there are 120 states in the NAM. Its las Summit was held in 2019 in Baku, and argued for peace, multilateralism and the sovereignity of peoples and denounced the United States’ actions to destabilise countries such as Venenzuela. It also answered the end of the blockade against Cuba
The 16 colonies recognised by the UN are:United Kingdom (10 colonies): Anguilla, Bermuda, Gibraltar, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Pitcairn and Santa Helena. United States (3 colonies) Guam, Us Virgin Islands, American Samoa. France (1 colony): New Caleodnia. New Zealand (1 colony): Tokelau. Spain (1 colony): Western Sahara
vocaBULary: Decolonisation: Undoing colonial rule. Colonialism: Establishing control over foreign territories. Conference of Bandung: 1955 Asian-African cooperation meeting. Panafricanism: Unity of African peoples worldwide. Commonwealth: Association of former British colonies. Gandhi: Leader of Indian independence movement. Apartheid: Racial segregation in South Africa. Nelson Mandela: Anti-apartheid revolutionary, South Africa’s first black president. NAM: Non-Aligned Movement during Cold War. Madrid Accords: Agreements to resolve Western Sarah conflictos.
Sub-Saharan Africa gained independence through various means: peacefully within the Commonwealth for UK colonies, apartheid in South Africa until 1994, French colonies achieving independence within or outside the French Community, Belgium decolonizing Congo in 1960 amid internal revolts, and Spain’s colonies gaining independence in 1956 with UN support. In southern Africa, conflict arose over diamond and gold deposits leading to war between British and Boers, resulting in British control and white minority rule under the 1910 South African Union Constitution.