Decolonization and the Emergence of the Third World

Posted on May 13, 2024 in History

Decolonization

Causes

  • The Second World War: The war directly affected the colonies, as the forced mobilization of men and resources for the Allies increased unrest. Furthermore, many colonies in Africa and Asia were occupied by Germany and Japan, which highlighted the weakness of the metropoles (Britain, France, the Netherlands…). The resources needed to maintain very expensive empires were too high. By 1945, the old colonial powers had lost international influence to the United States and USSR.
  • The Nationalism Movements:
    • At the international level, an attitude in favor of decolonization and freedom of peoples, as reflected in the Charter of the United Nations (1945), had emerged. Meanwhile, the two great superpowers supported decolonization and interfered in the emancipation process in an attempt to bring the new states into their sphere of influence.
    • In the colonized countries, people’s desire for independence was growing as they became aware of the political and economic exploitation involved in colonialism and the poverty stemming from this.

The Emergence of Charismatic Leaders

At the end of the war, independence movements based on different ideologies (communism, religion, nationalism…) increased. These movements gained momentum due to charismatic leaders who had the skills and support to lead them, such as:

  • Gandhi and the Indian National Congress
  • Ho Chi Minh and the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) in Indochina
  • Sukarno and the Indonesian National Party
  • Lumumba and the Congolese National Movement

International Support

Support came from groups of intellectuals, Christian churches, international humanitarian movements, and the United Nations, who defended the right to peoples’ self-determination.

Stages of Decolonization

  • The decolonization process occurred continuously from 1945, although with varying intensity. The pathways to independence varied and often involved armed conflicts with the metropole. Sometimes there was civil unrest after independence had been achieved.
  • The colonial past and the artificial borders left a legacy of political instability and conflicts that continues to this day in many countries.

First Stage (1945-1954)

  • In the Middle East, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan gained independence. The British mandate in Palestine ended, and much of its territory became the new state of Israel.
  • In Asia, Britain agreed to Indian independence in 1947. Indonesia became an independent state in 1949, and France left Indochina in 1954.

Second Stage (1951-1962)

  • In North Africa, the Italian colony of Libya was granted sovereignty in 1951.
  • In 1956, France recognized Moroccan and Tunisian independence but tried to stay in Algeria. This led to a long war that ended with Algerian independence in 1962.

Third Stage (1955-1965)

  • This stage affected mainly Sub-Saharan Africa, where most British (Kenya, Nigeria), French (Guinea, Mauritania, Madagascar), and Belgian (Congo) colonies declared independence.

Fourth Stage (1975-1993)

  • In South Africa, white settlers declared independence in 1961 and established a system of racial segregation against most of the black population (apartheid). This situation continued until the 1990s when the discriminatory laws against black people were abolished.
  • As well, it affected certain remaining colonies – small territories on the Arabian Peninsula, the islands of the West Indies, and the archipelagos of Oceania – which peacefully and progressively became independent.

In some cases, decolonization was brought about by pacts of peaceful agreements: this was the case of most of the British colonies, which maintained their economic and political ties through the Commonwealth.

In others, it was brought about by force, giving rise to the so-called colonial wars (this was the case in Algeria, Angola, and Mozambique).

Finally, in other cases, there was a mixed process; a mixture of war and diplomacy (as in India).

Decolonization of Asia and the Middle East

  • In Asia: The independence of the Philippines was a peaceful process because the US voluntarily granted this status to the country in 1946. The process was mixed on the Hindustan Peninsula, where the British Indian empire was partitioned in 1947 to form the Indian Union and Pakistan, from which Bangladesh separated in 1971. However, independence was achieved through war in the Dutch colony of Indonesia and in French Indochina, from which Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia emerged.
  • In the Middle East: Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and various countries of the Arabian Peninsula became independent. The UN decided to divide Palestine in 1947 to create the state of Israel. The proclamation of the State of Israel by the Jews in 1948, at the end of the British mandate over the region, caused several Arab-Israeli wars and a conflict that continues to this day.

The Decolonization of Africa

The decolonization of Africa took longer to occur. In 1950, Egypt, Liberia, and Ethiopia were the only independent countries; the rest of the continent was in the hands of the European powers.

  • The process of independence first affected the northern colonies, like Libya (1951), Tunisia and Morocco (1956); and Algeria, which became independent in 1962 after a long war against France.
  • Later on, most of Sub-Saharan Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Somalia, Kenya…) was decolonized, for the most part peacefully.
  • In this phase, armed conflicts only arose in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where an apartheid regime was established, which led to the insurrection of the black majority, and the Belgian Congo (1960), where bloody civil clashes broke out.
  • Finally, the Portuguese colonies of Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique gained their independence in 1975.

After Decolonization, the Third World Emerged

  • Many of the decolonized nations did not want to align themselves with either the Capitalist or the Communist Bloc. These countries made up the Third World (1952) – the poorest or developing countries.
  • In 1955, representatives from 29 newly independent states met at the Afro-Asian Conference in Bandung, Indonesia. These countries represented half the world’s population but controlled just 10% of the world’s wealth.
  • In the final declaration, they advocated the sovereignty and territorial integrity of nations, peace and neutrality between the blocs, and made a commitment to fight poverty.
  • Afterward, they formed the Non-Aligned Movement (1961), which supported the emergence of these new protagonists on the international stage and promoted the right of all peoples to self-determination.

Factors Responsible for the Non-Alignment Movement

  • Global tension caused by the Cold War
  • Struggle against imperialism and colonialism
  • Right of independent judgment
  • Friendly relations with all nations
  • Restructuring the international economic order
  • Formation of a collective force

Objectives of the NAM

  • Eliminate all causes that could lead to war
  • Protect the nascent freedom of newborn independent countries of Asia and Africa from colonial domination
  • Oppose colonialism, imperialism, and racial discrimination
  • Encourage friendly relations among countries
  • Advocate for the peaceful settlement of international disputes
  • Oppose the use of force and the use of nuclear weapons
  • Strengthen the United Nations as an organ of world peace
  • Protect human rights and protect the environment
  • Build a new international economic order (NEIO) based on equality, equity, and justice

And Neocolonialism Spread

  • The colonized peoples needed political independence to develop, but this was often insufficient.
  • The new states had to deal with colonial legacies and major weaknesses (lack of human and economic resources).
  • They maintained economic ties with the former metropoles (banks, companies… continued to operate there), and new investors were attracted by the new business opportunities.
  • As a result, new forms of economic, political, and cultural dependence were created. These were less visible and less expensive since, unlike colonialism, they didn’t involve direct military or administrative control of the territory.
  • This new form of dependence was known as neocolonialism, which involves external interference in officially sovereign and free states; this interference can even take the form of coups to impose military dictatorships that favor foreign interests.

With Serious Consequences for Most Countries

The new economic dependence created by neocolonialism is based on three main aspects:

  • Technological dependence: Less developed countries need to buy expensive state-of-the-art technology from advanced countries.
  • Commercial dependence: They have to import manufactured products at a high price while also exporting cheaper, lower-value agricultural products, raw materials, and energy sources, which means an unequal exchange.
  • Financial dependence: Their lack of capital means they have to borrow high-interest loans from developed countries and international agencies. In addition, most modern companies in the least developed countries are controlled by foreign capital, and their investments are associated with cheap labor.

This dependence has generated a growing debt that has hindered their development, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, perpetuated inequality between rich countries and many decolonized countries, exacerbated poverty and underdevelopment, and encouraged the creation of weak, corrupt, and puppet states. Many former colonies have become economically and politically dependent on their former metropoles – this is known as neocolonialism.