Decolonization and Asia’s Post-War Emergence
Causes of Decolonization
Several factors contributed to the widespread decolonization process:
Weakness of Colonial Powers
A national process seeking independence emerged during the interwar period. Conditions for achieving the objectives of liberal movements were created during the Second World War. The war shattered the myth of invincible colonial powers when Great Britain and France suffered defeats in their colonies, often at the hands of the Axis powers. Criticism also arose against the colonial model, as the economic benefits often did not outweigh the costs of defense and administration.
Favorable International Context
During the Cold War, both the United States and the USSR demonstrated support for decolonization. The U.S. granted independence to the Philippines, and the USSR actively supported independence movements. Furthermore, new global powers sought areas of political and economic influence, leading to a form of neocolonialism. In 1945, the United Nations Charter announced equality among peoples and recognized the right of self-determination.
The Force of Nationalist Movements
After the Second World War, nationalism gained significant popular appeal. Several types of nationalist movements emerged:
- Nationalist groups led by Communist parties (e.g., Indonesia)
- Movements with extreme nationalist ideology (e.g., Islamic countries)
- Independence movements linked to ethnicity (e.g., Black African nations)
Key leaders of these nationalist groups included Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi (India), and Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt).
Asian Independences
India’s Independence
The Congress Party, led by Pandit Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi, demanded India’s independence. Gandhi developed the theory of non-violence and civil disobedience, mobilizing Hindus to resist and confront the British Empire. In 1942, the Congress Party was outlawed. A minority Islamic Muslim League also emerged, advocating for a separate Muslim state.
When the Labour Party came to power in Great Britain, it favored decolonization, facilitating the opening of negotiations. The Viceroy of India met with the Muslim League and the Congress Party, agreeing on a process of power transfer. In 1947, India became independent, leading to the partition of the subcontinent into India (Hindu-majority) and Pakistan (Muslim-majority).
Indonesia and Indochina
Indonesia, a Dutch colony, was occupied by Japan during the war. The nationalist movement there was led by Sukarno, the founder of the Indonesian Nationalist Party. The Netherlands responded by sending troops to Indonesia. However, UN mediations and negotiations, involving Great Britain, eventually culminated in Indonesia’s independence in 1949.
Meanwhile, in French Indochina, Communists led by Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. France responded by sending troops, leading to the First Indochina War. France suffered a significant defeat and subsequently accepted the independence of Cambodia and Laos.
Birth of the Republic of China
China Becomes a Republic
An anti-imperialist revolution led to the proclamation of the Republic of China, which sought a Western-style liberal democracy. Sun Yat-sen was the founder of the Kuomintang (KMT). However, the new republic did not gain control over all territory; the country was divided into domains ruled by warlords. Later, Chiang Kai-shek brought more authority and nationalism to his government, leading to an evolution towards a dictatorship. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) opposed the government’s dictatorship. In response, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the suppression of Communist control.
Japanese Invasion and Communist Revolution
China was invaded by Japan in 1937, which led the Communists and the Kuomintang to form an anti-Japanese front. In 1945, after the Japanese capitulation, confrontations resumed between the former allies, leading to a civil war. The Communists ultimately prevailed, ending the KMT’s rule and proclaiming the People’s Republic of China in Beijing. Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist regime, initiated significant transformations in customs, marriage laws, and other societal aspects.
In 1954, a new constitution was introduced, and China occupied Tibet.
China’s Soviet Economic Model
China adopted a Soviet economic model, which was based on collectivized land and focused on heavy industry. This model did not work effectively, causing a food crisis and widespread public discontent. A significant rift also developed between the USSR and China during this period.