Decolonization: A Historical Analysis of Asia and Africa
Stages of the Process of Decolonization
Decolonization began in the Indian subcontinent and then spread through the rest of Asia and Africa. We can distinguish three major stages:
- The first initial stage, located between 1945 and 1955. This phase affected mainly the Asian continent and the Middle East.
- The second phase covers the period between 1955 and 1970. Its main feature was the expansion of the phenomenon of decolonization across Africa. At this stage, the UN had a significant role.
- The last stage covers the period from 1970 to today. It implies the independence of the last colonies in Africa. Even today, there are still areas of the world that the UN considers territories, such as Gibraltar and Western Sahara.
The Decolonization of Asia
The Independence of the British Empire in Asia
India
The independence of Hindustan, the largest colony of the United Kingdom, the “Crown Jewel”, constituted the first major milestone in the process of decolonization. The promise of independence after the First World War was breached. It was at this time that Gandhi led the Congress Party (the oldest colonial party in the world) and initiated boycotts of British goods, such as the Salt March. Muslims, disagreeing with Gandhi, created their own party: The Muslim League. The decolonization process was inevitable during the Second World War. Attempts at agreement between the British and the two pro-independence parties, the Congress Party, led by Nehru and Gandhi, and the Muslim League, were unsuccessful. After the war, London became aware of the impossibility of maintaining the colony. The Indian leader Gandhi advocated the policy of passive resistance, which was based on the population’s refusal to cooperate with the British colonial authorities, but without resorting to violence. The decolonization process was to divide India into two states according to the religious beliefs of their populations: the Union of India, which comprised the majority Hindu population, and Pakistan, which grouped the Muslim population. In 1947, the British government signed the transfer of powers, and India and Pakistan gained independence, while slaughtering more than 1,000,000 deaths. Pakistan was divided into two areas, one west and another east of India, separated by more than two thousand kilometers. Years later, there was an armed conflict between the two territories, from which emerged a new independent state to the east, Bangladesh. The confrontation between Pakistan and India has continued until today. The most serious conflict has focused on the disputed region of Kashmir, a territory included in much of India but with a predominantly Muslim population. Both countries are world powers.
The Independence of Other British Possessions in Asia
The influence of the independence of India and Pakistan quickly spread through the rest of the British Empire in Asia. Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), and Malaysia gained independence.
The French, Dutch, and American Colonies
Indochina
In French Indochina, the end of World War II meant the unilateral declaration of independence from the Communists. France did not recognize the independence and opted for a military solution. The conflict was prolonged until the final defeat of the French army at Dien Bien Phu. After the military disaster, France recognized the independence of their Indochinese colonies.
Indonesia
After the Second World War, Indonesia declared independence. The Netherlands did not recognize it. International pressure and military difficulties of a country with economic problems and a small army forced the Dutch government to reconsider its colonial policy, and in 1949, it accepted independence. Sukarno was the independence leader.
Philippines
The U.S. agreed to self-government, but along with Japan, these were the countries with the largest U.S. military presence.
The Decolonization of Africa
In the Maghreb region, movements in favor of decolonization existed since the early 1950s.
Algeria
The French government granted a status of autonomy to Algeria. This statute did not satisfy the nationalists, who reinforced their claims after the French defeat in Indochina. The discontent among the Algerian Muslim population was increasing. The National Liberation Front (FLN) was created, which defended war as a means to achieve independence. A long armed conflict began between French forces and the FLN. The French government expended enormous effort to keep Algeria for the following reasons:
- The pressure of the French population settled in the colony, about one million people with economic and personal interests deeply rooted in Algeria.
- The political prestige that would be lost with the independence of a colonial territory as significant. This aspect was important to the military, who saw independence as a national catastrophe.
- The economic interests of French companies in Algeria.
The political crisis led to the return to power of General de Gaulle and the establishment of the Fifth Republic of France. The new government began talks with the FLN, which culminated in the granting of independence in 1962. Most of the French, the Pied-Noirs, returned to France.
Morocco
Moroccan independence had different characteristics from that of Algeria. Morocco was a protectorate divided between Spain and France. Direct French presence was limited, and economic investments were unimportant. Consequently, interest in the area was not comparable to that in Algeria. France recognized the independence of Morocco.
Tunisia
The process in Tunisia was similar, but it became a republic.
The Independence of Sub-Saharan Africa
Between 1955 and 1975, all African colonies gained independence. Pan-Africanism was an important factor in raising awareness of the population of the continent and in triggering the struggle for independence.
Pan-Africanism:
British Black Africa
The first country to achieve independence from the UK was Ghana. The decolonization process was agreed upon between the British and Nkrumah, the main nationalist leader and leader of Pan-Africanism.
This model served as an example for other countries dominated by the United Kingdom, such as Nigeria. The only exception was Kenya, where the appearance of the Mau-Mau guerrilla group caused a true colonial war.
French Black Africa
Most of the French colonies became independent by 1960. The momentum for independence came from nationalist movements, promoted by personalities like Leopold S. Senghor in Senegal.
The Belgian Congo
The Belgian government administration remained excluded from the indigenous population. But the existence of enormous mineral wealth in the country had encouraged the creation of social groups that gradually tilted toward nationalism. Belgium granted independence in 1960. Despite that, the economic control of the new country was kept by European and American mining companies.
The first president, Lumumba, was assassinated due to the interests of multinationals (diamonds).
Portuguese Africa
The decolonization of the Portuguese colonies was later. This is explained by the existence in the metropolis of a dictatorship that had intended to assimilate those territories, which it considered as part of Portugal. Despite this policy of assimilation, nationalist movements arose throughout the colonies.
The hardline stance held by Portugal inclined these movements toward war. The metropolis was plunged into a guerrilla war with a high human and economic cost.
The unpopularity of the war was the main cause of the so-called Carnation Revolution, a military rebellion that overthrew the Portuguese dictatorship in 1974. From that date, the process of decolonization of the various territories began quickly.