David Hume’s Philosophy: Empiricism and Human Understanding
Hume’s ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’
David Hume, often called the Newtonian of moral science, aimed to apply the experimental method of reasoning to moral subjects. His major work, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” explores this concept. Hume believed that all sciences relate to human nature to some extent. Thus, the role of this new science is to examine the extent of human understanding and explain the nature of the ideas we use. The most important instrument of analysis in this book is the laws of association of ideas.
Hume’s ‘The Investigation’
The first part of the “Treatise” is entirely pessimistic. Hume abandoned the idea of creating a science of man and no longer intended to apply the Newtonian method. His later work, “The Investigation,” is much shorter and focuses on human understanding with a strong critical lens. A new instrument of analysis is introduced: the distinction between matters of fact and relations of ideas.
Hume and the Enlightenment
After his first draft, Hume dedicated himself to studies on various issues, including morality, religion, economy, and politics, using a descriptive and historical method. The spirit of Hume’s system disappeared, and he appeared more as an enlightened type.
Human Knowledge According to Hume
In both the “Treatise” and “The Investigation,” Hume’s empiricism is more consistent than that of Locke or Berkeley. He proposed several key principles:
- Empiricist Principle: Reason alone cannot give us an idea; everything in the mind must first pass through the senses.
- Principle of Immanence: Nothing can be in the mind without an image or perception, and the senses are the channel for these. There are two types of perceptions: impressions and ideas. Impressions are our more vivid perceptions, such as what we hear, see, or feel. Ideas are less intense than impressions.
- Copy Principle: All our ideas are copies of our impressions. It is impossible to think of something that has not passed through the senses. There are no innate ideas.
- Principle of Association of Ideas: Ideas have a kind of attraction and are connected in the mind. This connection is based on similarity (e.g., a painting and reality), contiguity (e.g., cause and effect), and cause-effect (e.g., a wound and subsequent pain).
- Principle of Denial of General Ideas: General ideas exist but are associated with a particular genre.
Matters of Fact and Relations of Ideas
Hume distinguished between two kinds of truths: truths of reason and truths of fact. Truths of reason are necessary, and their opposite is impossible. Truths of fact are contingent, and their opposite is possible. Truths of reason are innate, while truths of fact refer to reality and are based on the principle of reason. Relations of ideas belong to science and can be detected with thought. Matters of fact are not ascertained in the same way; their opposite is always possible. Relations of ideas involve demonstrative arguments, while matters of fact involve probable reasoning.
The Problem of Reality
Memories are quite similar to ideas, but the problem is that we do not know the future.
- All arguments seem to be related to cause and effect (e.g., we know we will suffer a burn because fire causes this effect).
- Causes are discovered through experience (e.g., we know that fire burns because we have seen it).
- All reasoning assumes that similar causes will produce similar effects (e.g., if I have seen that fire burns, I expect it to burn again in the future).
- Custom implies the belief that the same events will happen again.
Belief
Belief is a feeling that accompanies the association of ideas. If I have experienced something many times, such as fire causing a burn, then seeing fire will evoke a strong feeling of belief that a burn will follow. Seeing a cause instinctively leads to the expectation of the effect.
Metaphysics
Hume considered metaphysics an absurd form of knowledge that leads to superstition. If all we know are our perceptions and not things directly, we cannot be certain of an external world. However, if someone conveys impressions, we strongly believe that there is a world outside. Hume also criticized the idea of substance, arguing that we have no impression or idea of substance; we only know that it has meaning. He concluded that metaphysical concepts have no value, and only our perceptions can guide us.
Naturalistic Fallacy
Hume argued that reason does not move us, but feeling and passion do. He was indignant that the “is” or “is not” is often transformed into “should” or “should not,” implying a relationship with something else. According to Hume, some philosophers claim that virtue is natural and vice is unnatural, but vice is a feeling, not a reason. Morality is based on sentiment rather than reason. Virtue and vice are determined by the approval or disapproval we feel. Hume stated that everything that brings happiness should be approved.