Cultural Relativism, Universalism, and the Human Mind
Most Popular Positions
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the evaluation of other cultures based on the preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture. Ethnocentric individuals, therefore, judge other cultures based on the characteristics of their own culture. Brown, who involves two different cultures, highlights the inability to understand the consequences of different ways of life. On the other hand, it reinforces the feeling of cohesion within the group. As a result, members of the group believe they are better than others, and two of these positions have a different take on those who are different: paternalism or imposition. Some feel that ethnocentrism leads to xenophobia (hatred of foreigners), racism, and chauvinism (exaggerated patriotism). The most common position is aporophobia (rejection or hatred of the poor).
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism states that each culture should only be analyzed based on its own values and not those of another culture. It does not promote dialogue between cultures; instead, each culture remains closed off within its own values. The risks of this position are:
- Racism: There is no one culture that is superior to another.
- Cultural separation: There is no desire for a relationship between cultures.
- Xenocentrism: One’s own culture is seen as inferior to others, even when some customs violate human rights.
- Cultural paralysis: It is said that maintaining traditions is the most important thing.
Intercultural relations, in short, can be enriching for everyone.
Interculturalism
Interculturalism demands relations of equality between cultures. Its objectives are:
- To accept that we live in a pluralistic society.
- To understand the complex relationships between cultures, both from a personal and a community perspective.
- To promote dialogue between cultures.
- To find solutions to problems and promote cooperation worldwide.
The main objective of interculturalism is to learn to live together in a pluralistic world. The existence of many cultures brings diversity, which is always a source of wealth. When interacting with other cultures, our attitude should be intercultural, a positive attitude towards integration, and therefore the opposite of exclusion and division.
Universalism, Intercultural Dialogue, and Relativism
According to relativism, intercultural dialogue is completely impossible, and it is not where we want to be. Universalism, on the other hand, posits that all cultures share some common values, such as respect for differences between cultures. Favorable attitudes lead us to universalism and interculturalism, paving the way for true dialogue between cultures and preventing the imposition of one culture over another. It is essential to have universal values to achieve fruitful dialogue. These values include:
- Full respect for human rights.
- Liberty, equality, solidarity, and acceptance of other values.
- A positive attitude towards dialogue.
To this end, we must be willing to understand others, and tolerance must be active; passive or indifferent tolerance is not enough.
Brain and Mind
Is the mind a computer? Differences include senses, initiative, feelings, and organization. Are genes responsible for the mind? The mind and genes also value experience. Is the soul real?
Theories About the Brain and Mind
Materialist Monist Theory
Materialist monism states that mental processes originate entirely from the material: the brain. Physicalist materialism or physicalism claims that our feelings are physicochemical reactions that occur in our brain. The cybernetic materialist trend views the mind as a complex computer. Based on this, man is a conscious automaton, as described by Alan Turing. Emergentist materialism, proposed by Mario Bunge and other researchers, suggests that the mental aspect is not only physical but emerged during evolution from the physical aspects. Bunge’s theory posits that there is a single substance, matter, with various properties resulting from evolution. Therefore, matter is dynamic and has three aspects: physical and chemical, biological, and mental.
Dualist Theory
According to dualist theories, the human spirit is not merely matter. It is made up of two elements: the brain or body, and the soul.
Platonic Dualism
Plato believed that the soul is immortal and immaterial. The soul’s main function is knowledge, and it understands the real world of ideas. The material and mortal body is a prison for the soul. Humans need to take the weight of the body due to material desires. The world is far from the heavens and remains within the limits of this hard and confused Earth.
Hylomorphism
Aristotle believed that the body and soul are complementary. Thomas Aquinas held a similar view, adapting Aristotle’s philosophy to the Christian faith. St. Thomas believed that the soul is the form of the body, but his theory was even more dualistic than Aristotle’s. According to Christianity, after death, the soul is separated from the body until the day of Resurrection, when it will be reunited with a glorified body.
Cartesian Dualism
René Descartes proposed that humans are made of two completely different substances.
Interactionist Dualism
John C. Eccles proposed the main idea that the brain and the self-conscious soul are two distinct realities. The brain alone is not enough to explain mental events. According to Eccles, the interaction between the physical and mental aspects occurs on the surface of the brain.
Beyond Monism and Dualism
Emergentist Interactionism
Karl Popper tried to overcome both theories. He proposed that the world is made up of three interacting parts:
- The world is composed of visible physical bodies. Materialists do not support this view.
- The world of mental states includes, among other things, awareness of situations, non-conscious states, psychological skills, and experience.
- The world of the human mind is a set of products, such as stories, myths, scientific theories, social institutions, works of art, and language.
Structuralism
Pedro Laín Entralgo proposed structuralism. According to him, a structure or structures are suitable for the emergence or appearance of a concept, as it better describes the relationship between physical and mental aspects. It is not that desire appears in the brain; rather, it seems that there was a desire before it appeared in the brain. The dynamic structure of the brain, through its own work, activates specific brain areas, leading to thought, self-awareness, free will, and artistic creativity.
Subject, Consciousness, History, and Life
All living beings have consciousness, that is, the capacity for personal information about themselves and their environment. This provides the possibility of independence and control. In humans, the relationship between the physical and mental aspects is complex, and each individual is unique. Man is a subject, not an object. Someone who does things, who answers, who asks, “About me?” The human conscience has two main functions: to recognize oneself as a reality (me, my way of saying to me) and to ensure that we remain aware of our personal identity. The conversion of individuality is more than self-awareness; it is the awareness of opportunities generated by intelligence, freedom, and privacy. This does not mean that consciousness must be greater than the body. In fact, thanks to human consciousness, we can appreciate history, be aware of our history, and dream not only physically but also enthusiastically about where we are.