Cuba’s Path to Independence: From Colony to Revolution
As a colony exploited for its resources, Cuba was a major producer of sugar, snuff, coffee, and cotton. Plantations relied on black slave labor in subhuman conditions.
Economic Grievances and Seeds of Rebellion
A primary grievance was the imposition of free trade, where Spanish products entering the island paid lower tariffs than those from other sources, creating impossible competition for Cuban businesses.
Challenges Faced by the Spanish Army
- Most Cubans desired independence.
- Cuban military leaders employed guerrilla tactics, inflicting damage on the Spanish army.
- Soldiers faced hot, humid weather and tropical diseases, with inadequate sanitation services.
The Ten Years’ War (1868-1878)
Cuban intellectuals and landowners claimed independence to achieve economic freedom. Initial executions by the Captain General moderated the uprising. The war gained strength from 1872 onwards due to U.S. aid, driven by interest in the island’s large sugar exports and opportunities for capital investment to integrate their economies. The Peace of Zanjón was signed in 1878, making Cuba a Spanish province and abolishing slavery (though it wasn’t fully effective until 1886).
The Little War (1879-1880)
This short-lived conflict saw the principal chiefs quickly surrender and be imprisoned in Africa.
The Cuban War of Independence (1895-1898)
The U.S. decided to restrict Cuban products in protest of high tariffs, feeling unfairly treated as major importers. In 1895, Cubans rose up with the Grito de Baire, following José Martí’s order to begin the insurrection. Martínez Campos failed to resolve the conflict, as did his successor, Valeriano Weyler, who implemented a concentration policy of villages, destroying shelters and pursuing a policy of extermination against revolutionary groups. He created fortified trails to control movement, but these measures did not break the rebellion.
Simultaneously, an uprising erupted in the Philippines, a neglected Spanish archipelago. The uprising led by José Rizal was suppressed, and Rizal was executed. The U.S. Senate authorized the President to declare a state of war in Cuba.
After the death of Cánovas del Castillo, the new Spanish government under Sagasta decreed political autonomy in late 1897. In January 1898, riots in Havana prompted the U.S. to send the USS Maine to protect American interests. On February 15, the Maine exploded, killing many sailors. On April 21, President William McKinley announced the severance of diplomatic relations, and on April 25, the U.S. declared war on Spain.
The Spanish-American War and its Aftermath
The war ignited patriotic fervor, fueled by the press. Initially, there was belief in the possibility of a Spanish victory. The Spanish fleet initially sought refuge in Manila Bay, where the Americans engaged them. The Battle of Manila Bay lasted only 3 hours, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish fleet. The Spanish fleet then moved to Puerto Rico to protect the island of Cuba, but was intercepted by the U.S. fleet in Santiago de Cuba. U.S. troops attacked the Spanish in Cuba, inflicting heavy losses.
Spain, recognizing the futility of further resistance, expressed willingness to negotiate. The conflict ended in December 1898 with the Treaty of Paris, ceding Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the U.S. for $20 million. Cuba came under American control.
The loss of the Spanish empire was completed with the sale of other archipelagos (Marianas, Carolines, Palau) to Germany.