Cuban Independence and 1898 Conflict
Roots of Cuban Independence
During the Regency of Maria Cristina, Cuba remained a colony of Spain, its primary metropolis. The Cuban question had several antecedents. On one hand, the independence of other Spanish colonies, a difficult process that from 1808 to 1824 resulted in the independence of almost all Spanish colonies, leaving Cuba as an isolated metropolis. On the other hand, there were conflicts that caused the Cuban independence war as we know it, including the Little War (1879) and insurrections in 1883 and 1885. These conflicts and the accompanying repression, attached to a long war (1868-1878), fueled popular nationalism in Cuba.
Regarding the population of Cuba, as seen in a graphic (presumably), 58% were white, 9% were soldiers, and 33% were black or mestizos.
Spain’s interests were as follows: trade with Cuba provided a positive balance for Spain, and autonomy was not granted to Cuba to prevent its cession to the U.S. Cuba obtained much of its income from exports; the country exported over 90% sugar and tobacco. American diplomatic pressure on the island increased. In 1892, the U.S. received a favorable tariff for its products and supported pro-independence movements with the intention to arbitrate when there was conflict between Cuba and the metropolis.
The War for Independence and 1898
War between Spain and Cuba erupted again in 1895 with the Grito de Baire. The Manifesto of Montecristi was proclaimed by José Martí and Máximo Gómez, civilian and military leaders of the Cuban independence party. Following the death of Martí, Gómez and Antonio Maceo took command of the rebels.
This revolt was joined by the Philippines in 1896, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The Spanish general Valeriano Weyler, Commander of Spanish troops, acted with extreme harshness and executed principal independence leaders of the archipelago. The rebellion was suppressed in 1897.
In 1898, an incident took place: the blowing up of the USS Maine, an American ship that was in Cuba at the port of Havana. It was probably an accident, but the U.S. press and government blamed Spain and offered to buy the island. Spain had a big problem: if it sold Cuba to the U.S., a civil war could erupt in Spain; if it accepted a withdrawal with dishonor, Republicans and Carlists would rebel. Thus, Spain preferred a defeat before public opinion rather than a withdrawal.
Public opinion and the Spanish press were very optimistic about the outcome of the war. The war at sea began, and the U.S. military (they had more ships and better training) defeated the Spanish. The press had a great influence, acting both in the U.S. and in Spain, and the call for war played a role that culminated in high levels of public agitation. The decisive battle at sea saw the U.S. fleet defeat the Spanish, first in the Caribbean, off Santiago de Cuba.
On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, by which Spain recognized the independence of Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, the island of Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. In 1899, Spain sold the remaining islands of its Pacific empire to the German Empire: the Caroline Islands, the Marianas (except Guam), and Palau.
Aftermath and Consequences
The war in Cuba had several consequences:
- Final change in Spain’s international status.
- Loss of national identity and the development of nationalist movements.
- Development of the labor movement and a new social order.
- Republicanism and the emergence of a new militarism; the army assumed the role of guaranteeing the unity of Spain and maintaining social order.
- A new mindset was reflected in the secularization of society. This period saw the development of the Silver Age of Spanish culture, expressed through Regenerationism and the Generation of ’98.