Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research, Morality, Communication, Therapy
MULTIPLE CHOICE NOTES
Measurement bias – same validity & reliability across cultures
Poortinga [1898] dealing with non-equivalent data – precluding comparison
Ecological theory – children contribute to their enculturation & socializing processes
Mead – post figurative – low level peer, prefigurative – high level peer influence
Biologically based style of interacting with world exists from birth – temperament
Piaget’s theory cog dev concern – cultural variation – child get skills in Piaget’s stages
Sees stealing = bad = against law & bad in society – conventional morality
3 ethics to morality [Jensen 2011] – ethic of divinity [centrality of religion in morality]
Markus & Katayama [1991] – people with independent view of self – virtue = standing out
Individualistic cultures = higher self-esteem compared to collectivistic
All cultures self-enhance differently – tactical self enhancement
Not recognised in self-identified group – identity denial
Psych anthropology national character – each culture has a modal personality type
Perspective of personality assume that psych process is culturally constituted – cultural Indigenous
FFM vs FFT – FFM= universal personality traits FFT= the source of those traits
See behaviours & relationships as dependent on their own behaviour – Internal locus control
Universal & culture specific understanding of personality – multidimensional influence by culture & biology
Hofstede 2001 masc vs fem cultures – higher masculinity have moralistic attitudes about sex
Berry 1976 study, what cultures need higher degree of conformity on gender roles – tight
Bio diff – sexes with environment make culture specific sex roles to adapt – biosocial model
Theory that people in urbanised places expect squared corners – carpentered world theory
Analytic vs holistic perception – A = context independent processes – salient objects independent to context
Explaining behaviour others using internal BUT yours using external attributes – fundamental attribute error
Steele & Aronson 1995 – performed worse than the Black students who weren’t primed to think about race before
Transient neurophysiological reactions to events that have consequences for our welfare? – Emotions
What emotions focus on self-associated with cognitive representations of self & others – self-conscious
Tomkins & McCarter, Ekman & Izard – pancultural universality of facial expressions of emotion
Research on culture how mentions R perceived – collectivism associated with greater emotion intensity
Levy 1973 less forms of knowledge than usual – hypo cognition LEXICON – words in a language
High context culture – messages conveyed indirectly, low – conveyed primarily & direct in verbal
Emblems – nonverbal gestures carry meaning, paralinguistic – pitch, pace, pause projection convey
MacLachlan 1997 – balance & imbalance Berkman & Syme 1979 – psychosocial factors change health
Li Repac 1980 – Chinese American clients rated worse mentally than European American therapists
Cultural syndrome of distress – clustered symptoms for individuals in cultural groups or contexts
Effective treatment for collectivist cultures – analysis & intervention is individual to others
Context treating people from diverse cultures – therapists convey respect is culturally determined
Assimilators – reject home culture & connect to host culture Integrators – connect to both
Negative correlation in lab report – UA low, SW high & vice versa – results = non-significant
Topic 1 – Issues in Cross-Cultural Research
Cross-cultural research focuses on identifying cultural similarities and differences by comparing psychological variables across various groups. Bias and equivalence are key considerations in this research. Bias occurs when differences do not hold the same meaning within and across cultures, while equivalence ensures consistency in conceptual meaning and empirical methods between cultures. Different types of bias must be addressed. Measurement bias ensures that tools consistently and accurately measure what they are designed to. Construct bias involves ensuring that the concept being measured is understood in the same way across cultures. Linguistic bias arises from language translation issues, such as idiomatic expressions. Response biases, including socially desirable responding, acquiescence bias (a tendency to agree), extreme response bias (favoring extreme options), and the reference group effect (responses influenced by cultural norms), can also impact results. Furthermore, model bias may occur when psychological models do not apply universally, and sampling bias arises when participants fail to represent their cultures comprehensively. Procedural bias pertains to consistency in research administration across cultures, and interpretational bias reflects how researchers’ cultural backgrounds influence interpretation of findings.
When dealing with non-equivalent data, researchers should avoid comparisons that would be meaningless due to non-equivalence. They can reduce this issue by removing problematic questions or interpreting non-equivalence rather than ignoring it. Cultural bias influences not only research tools and methodologies but also the interpretation of results. Sampling and generalizability require careful consideration of factors such as language barriers, cultural norms, and accessibility. Ethical considerations, including informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, and cultural sensitivity, are also critical. Cross-cultural research can be structural, examining relationships between variables, or level-oriented, focusing on differences in mean variables. Rigorous research practices help refine design and measurement tools.
Topic 2 – Culture & Moral Reasoning
Culture encompasses the behaviors, rules, problem-solving patterns, traditions, and histories of societies. Its primary function is to provide rules and structure for group living. Socialization refers to the process of learning and integrating social norms, while enculturation is the adoption of cultural customs and behaviors. Family and peers play an essential role in a child’s development by reinforcing cultural norms and values.
- Post-figurative cultures, where elders pass on knowledge, experience slower cultural change.
- Configurative cultures, in which both adults and peers contribute to socialization, result in faster change.
- Prefigurative cultures, in which younger individuals teach adults, driving rapid cultural evolution.
Education systems reflect cultural values, and parental attitudes influence children’s academic beliefs. Moral reasoning, which dictates appropriate behavior, is rooted in ideals (morality) and norms (conventions). Kohlberg’s moral theory outlines three stages:
- The preconventional stage, where behavior is guided by avoiding punishment or gaining rewards (ages 0-9);
- The conventional stage, which involves adhering to societal rules for acceptance (adolescents to adulthood);
- The postconventional stage, where individuals rely on personal values and conscience (rare in adults).
The three ethical approaches to moral reasoning include:
- Autonomy, emphasizing individual rights and justice;
- Community, focusing on relationships and communal values;
- Divinity, centering on religious and spiritual beliefs.
Topic 3 – Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication involves the exchange of ideas, concepts, emotions, and thoughts among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Language differences and nonverbal misinterpretations, such as body language, facial expressions, and gestures, can hinder communication. Ethnocentrism, or viewing the world through one’s cultural lens, often exacerbates misunderstandings. To avoid such issues, researchers can use retranslation to prevent linguistic bias in studies and practice ethnorelativism, which involves understanding one’s culture in the broader context of others. Employing uncertainty reduction strategies, such as seeking clarification instead of making assumptions, can further enhance intercultural exchanges. Cultural factors also shape how messages are encoded and decoded. Decoding principles consider elements like social cognition, emotions, filters, ethnocentrism, values, and preconceptions.
Topic 4 – Culture & Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy has both traditional and contemporary dimensions, influenced significantly by cultural contexts. Traditional psychotherapy originated in Western Europe, with Freud emphasizing personality structure and psychopathology, while Rogers introduced client-centered therapy focused on personal growth. Contemporary psychotherapy, particularly cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), emphasizes changing thoughts to alter behaviors and emotions. The cultural assumptions underlying these approaches significantly influence their applicability.
However, psychotherapy faces cultural limitations. Its effectiveness varies for non-European individuals, as cultural contexts shape behavior assessments and functionality. Across cultures, psychotherapy often incorporates cultural elements, such as religious integration, to enhance its effectiveness, though challenges remain in treating diverse populations. In the United States, APA guidelines address mental health needs for ethnic minorities, with culturally adapted CBT proving beneficial for groups such as African Americans and Latinos.
Barriers to accessing treatment persist, particularly in low-income nations, where language, stigma, and beliefs often hinder mental health access. Social structures further limit the availability of services. Addressing these disparities requires attention to racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic factors. Solutions include hiring bilingual staff, increasing outreach efforts, and reducing stigma to ensure equitable access to mental health care.