Cosmogony to Quantum: Exploring Science’s Core Concepts
What is a cosmogony? A mythical tale explaining the origin of the universe and consciousness.
What constitutes the problem of demarcation? The problem of demarcating or delimiting what is and is not science has always been an important issue for scientists. Traditionally, it has been considered a physical science model because it allows better empirical verification of statements.
What criteria are used to classify the different scientific disciplines? Sciences are often classified by their virtual object of study and the method used. Each model of science uses a specific class of statements with a corresponding criterion of truth.
What is a formal science? Logic and mathematics mainly refer to objects not observable by the senses and, therefore, do not provide information about the world. This is precisely why they are universal and necessary. Their consistency lies in the coherence of the reasoning structure. Their statements are called a priori.
What is an empirical science? Physics, biology, etc., involve the observation of facts and, therefore, provide information about the world. Consequently, they are not universal or necessary; they are generalizations of experience. Their statements are called a posteriori.
What is a social science? History, psychology, economics, etc., are particular groups within the empirical sciences. They target human events, characterized by intentionality, something that is not directly observable.
What is the difference between cosmology and cosmogony? Cosmogony: The human being has always wanted to explore their environment to satisfy their curiosity and the need to understand. Cosmology: Then, they seek new tools to expand and improve the accuracy of their findings, dismissing less rigorous reviews.
What is a “statement of fact”? It is formed from the facts of experience. An example is Newton’s law of gravity, considered complete at the time but superseded today by the theory of relativity.
What is induction? This kind of reasoning derives a general law from the observable facts of experience.
What constitutes the hypothetical-deductive method? The hypothetical method is an inductive procedure, a generalization of experience. It is called hypothetical because it begins by formulating hypotheses or conjectures about events. It is deductive because, to test these hypotheses, one needs to deduce simpler statements that can be contrasted.
What is a paradigm? A set of philosophical ideas, scientific theories, and methodological standards that prevail within a scientific tradition.
What is a hypothesis? An assumption of something possible or impossible from which a consequence can be extracted.
Elements of the hypothetical-deductive method:
- The investigation usually begins with the observation of facts.
- From the observation, a hypothesis or possible explanation is formulated to guide the investigation.
- Testable consequences of this hypothesis are derived using logic and mathematics.
- Comparison is performed using experiments that test many controllable variables.
- The comparison must critique both confirmation and refutation, as they may be due to circumstances outside the hypothesis.
- If the hypothesis is confirmed, it gains enough support to be considered an inductive law.
- Laws are articulated into a theory. Science seeks to systematize knowledge to develop theories that unify laws consistently.
What is an experiment? A procedure to test a hypothesis or verify the existence of a phenomenon and obtain a law.
What is the relationship between a hypothesis, a law, and a theory? Hypothesis: An assumption of something possible or impossible from which a consequence can be extracted. Law: A statement that holds universally, expressing uniform connections between phenomena. Theory: Speculative knowledge considered independently of any application.
Briefly describe the principle of falsifiability. A statement is true if it can be falsified by experience. It is a stand against dogmatism.
What does “reduced to the facts” mean? This is another limitation of science. There is no possibility of knowing that of which you have no experience, as Hume stated.
Please explain epistemological anarchism. It is a theory of knowledge developed by the Austrian philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend, who argues that no useful methodological rules or exceptions govern the progress of science or the development of knowledge.
How does Mario Bunge define factual assumptions? Conjectures are formulated to explain facts, whether known by experience or not.
Please explain the following sentence: “Most scientific hypotheses are formulated in a categorical…”
What assumptions have logical form? Why?
What is a “budget” hypothesis? How many types are there?
General characteristics of the science of antiquity:
- The classical view is based on an organismic model. The universe is a large, hierarchical, and differentiated body (geocentric).
- In a dynamic universe, everything that moves is moved by another, so everything is ultimately drawn hierarchically (theology).
- Christianity added the concept of creation to this image of a closed world and assimilated the teleological Aristotelian prime mover with God (theocentrism).
What is theology? A part of philosophy that studies the purpose of nature. The theological conception of the universe supports the existence of an order or purpose in its structure.
What is mechanism? A philosophical doctrine born in the seventeenth century that posits that the only firm causality is the physical influence between entities that make up the material world.
General features of the new science (Galileo and Newton): During the Renaissance, the Aristotelian system was revised, initiating a change of perspective. Its main features are heliocentrism, the discovery of mathematics, the new method of knowledge, and a new attitude toward nature.
Briefly formulate Einstein’s theory of relativity. Einstein, from the discovery of the photoelectric effect, concluded that light behaves like a wave and a particle, and its speed is constant. According to the theory of relativity, there is no absolute motion or fixed reference point. Therefore, there is no fixed time and space but a space-time continuum. Mass and energy are interchangeable according to the formula E = mc2.
Briefly formulate quantum theory. This theory seeks to explain the structure of matter at the atomic and subatomic levels. In 1900, Max Planck showed that matter absorbs and emits energy in units called quanta. Bohr, Dirac, and Heisenberg concluded that matter consists of atoms, tiny particles very close to the limit of the unobservable.
Why can’t science be deterministic? Because you cannot predict both the speed and position of a particle simultaneously.
What are the four basic forces of the universe? The big challenge in physics is the unification of quantum theory and relativity. The quantum revolution brought about the discovery of two new forces in addition to the already known gravity and electromagnetism. These are the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.
What is the unified theory? A hypothetical theory in theoretical physics that explains and connects all known physical phenomena in a single framework.
What does matter dynamics mean? A scientific term used to define the actual physical reality, consisting of matter particles associated with an almost infinite energy field symmetrically.
What is a system? A set of elements related to each other and self-regulating to achieve a particular function. Open systems, such as living organisms, exchange matter and energy with their surroundings, regenerating themselves.
Explain the anthropic principle. This principle holds that the universe must make human life possible and keep it constantly evolving to reach consciousness. It is based on the fact, first proposed by Brandon Carter in 1973, that our very existence determines, to a considerable extent, the properties of the universe we observe. It also raises the question of why the physical constants of the universe seem to be designed for the existence of intelligent life.
What is the butterfly effect? It is a concept that refers to the sensitivity of time to initial conditions within the framework of chaos theory. The idea is that given initial conditions of a particular chaotic system, the slightest change in them can cause the system to evolve in a completely different way.