Core Psychology Concepts: Perception, Learning, Memory, Thinking
1. Psychology as a Science and Historical Development
Definition and nature: Define psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Scientific characteristics: Objectivity, replicability, systematic observation, and empirical evidence (e.g., experimental methods).
Historical timeline:
- Pre-scientific: Philosophical roots (Plato, Aristotle) and the study of the soul.
- Foundational schools:
- Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt, 1879 lab)
- Functionalism (William James)
- Psychoanalysis (Freud)
- Modern shifts:
- Behaviorism (Watson/Skinner)
- Humanism (Maslow/Rogers)
- The cognitive revolution
2. Perception: Laws and Stages
Stages of perception: Explain the process from sensory input (reception) to transduction (conversion to neural signals), and finally processing/interpretation in the brain.
Gestalt laws of organisation:
- Proximity: Objects close together are perceived as a group.
- Similarity: Items that look alike are grouped together.
- Continuity: The eye follows the smoothest path or line.
- Closure: The brain fills in gaps to perceive a complete object.
Perceptual constancy: Explain why we perceive objects as stable in size, shape, and color despite changing retinal images.
3. Learning: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning (Pavlov):
- Key concepts: Neutral Stimulus (NS), Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and Conditioned Response (CR).
- Principles: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.
Operant conditioning (Skinner):
- Reinforcement: Positive (adding reward) vs. negative (removing an aversive stimulus) to increase behavior.
- Schedules: Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.
4. Thinking and Problem Solving
Thinking process: Define as the mental manipulation of information (concepts, images, propositions).
Creative thinking stages:
- Preparation: Gathering information.
- Incubation: Subconscious processing.
- Illumination: The “Aha!” moment.
- Verification: Testing the idea.
Problem solving: Discuss steps (identifying, goal-setting, strategy) and barriers (mental set, functional fixedness).
5. Motivation and Emotion
Motivation theories:
- Maslow’s hierarchy: Needs from physiological to self-actualization.
- Drive reduction: Motivation arises from biological needs (hunger, thirst) to restore homeostasis.
- Herzberg’s two-factor: Hygiene factors (environment) vs. motivators (the work itself).
Emotion theories:
- James-Lange: Physiological reaction precedes emotion.
- Cannon-Bard: Physiological reaction and emotion occur simultaneously.
- Schachter-Singer: Requires physiological arousal plus a cognitive label.
4. Memory: Models and Enhancement
Atkinson-Shiffrin model: Explain the flow from sensory memory (brief) to short-term memory (limited capacity) to long-term memory (permanent storage).
Types of long-term memory: Declarative (semantic, episodic) vs. non-declarative (procedural).
Enhancement strategies: Discuss mnemonics, chunking, elaborative rehearsal, and the “Method of Loci”.
Forgetting: Briefly mention decay theory and interference (proactive vs. retroactive).
6. Motivation and Emotion
Motivation theories:
- Maslow’s hierarchy: Needs from physiological to self-actualization.
- Drive reduction: Motivation arises from biological needs (hunger, thirst) to restore homeostasis.
- Herzberg’s two-factor: Hygiene factors (environment) vs. motivators (the work itself).
Emotion theories:
- James-Lange: Physiological reaction precedes emotion.
- Cannon-Bard: Physiological reaction and emotion occur simultaneously.
- Schachter-Singer: Requires physiological arousal + cognitive label.
The Process of Thinking
Definition and nature:
Define thinking as a complex cognitive process involving the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment.
It is an internal mental process that bridges the gap between a stimulus and a response.
Building blocks of thinking:
- Mental images: Visual representations of objects or events not currently present.
- Concepts: Categories used to group similar objects, events, or ideas (e.g., “fruit” or “honesty”).
- Propositions: Units of meaning that express a relationship between concepts.
Stages of creative thinking: (Highly important for 300-word answers)
- Preparation: Initial stage of gathering information, defining the problem, and trying out various solutions.
- Incubation: A period of “not thinking” about the problem where the subconscious mind continues to work on it.
- Illumination: The “Aha!” moment where a solution suddenly enters the conscious mind.
- Verification: Testing the solution to see if it actually works in reality.
Types of thinking:
- Convergent thinking: Aiming for a single “correct” solution (often used in mathematics or logic).
- Divergent thinking: Generating multiple unique solutions (the hallmark of creativity).
- Autistic thinking: Highly private, symbolic, and often disconnected from reality (e.g., daydreaming).
Problem-solving and barriers:
Thinking is often directed toward a goal or problem-solving.
Mention barriers like mental set (relying on old patterns) and functional fixedness (failure to see new uses for an object).