Core Concepts in Western Philosophy: Socrates to Epictetus
Philosophical Questions and Answers
Socrates: Wisdom and the Examined Life
What is the source of Socrates’ wisdom, and what does he claim to know? How does this connect with Socrates’ claim that the unexamined life is not worth living for a human being?
Socrates’ wisdom comes from his understanding that he knew very little. He is known for stating that he does not claim to know what he does not know. He believed that many people held false wisdom, claiming knowledge they didn’t possess, which could lead them to fear death unnecessarily. Socrates argued that a life without philosophical examination and reason is not worth living. Therefore, it is crucial for us to pursue knowledge and understand the limits of our own understanding to truly live a good life.
Aristotle: Akrasia (Weakness of Will)
What, according to Aristotle, is akrasia, or weakness of will (translated as ‘incontinence’)? What sort of position is Aristotle arguing against when he introduces this notion into his Nicomachean Ethics?
Aristotle defines akrasia as acting against one’s better judgment or reason, driven primarily by pleasure or emotion (pathos) rather than logic (logos). Individuals experiencing akrasia often disregard potential consequences in the heat of the moment. In discussing this, Aristotle argues against the Socratic view that no one knowingly does wrong. He contends that people need to cultivate virtue and focus on reason, not merely follow their desires or emotions when making decisions, as feelings are changeable, while reason provides a stable foundation for ethical action.
Mill: Utilitarianism’s Greatest Happiness Principle
Mill argues that utilitarianism is based on the Greatest Happiness Principle. Explain what grounds this principle and what it is.
The Greatest Happiness Principle, also known as Mill’s Principle of Utility, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (unhappiness or pain). Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain. Mill grounds this principle in the idea that happiness is the only thing desirable as an end in itself. The morality of actions is judged by their consequences, specifically by the overall amount of happiness they produce for the greatest number of sentient beings affected.
Kant: Duty as the Sole Moral Motivation
Explain why, for Kant, duty is the only truly moral motivation. Why can’t other motivations, such as those which come from our feelings or self-interest, be moral?
According to Kant, duty is the necessity of acting out of respect for the moral law. An action has moral worth only if it is performed from duty, not merely in accordance with duty (which could be motivated by self-interest or inclination). Feelings, emotions, or self-interest are unreliable and contingent; they cannot provide the universal and necessary basis required for morality. Only actions motivated by respect for the moral law itself, as expressed through the Categorical Imperative (e.g., acting only according to maxims that one can will to become universal laws), possess genuine moral worth.
Sartre: Key Existentialist Emotions
Briefly explain the three human emotions that Sartre discusses as part of existentialism. What are these emotions, and where do they come from?
Sartre discusses three key emotions arising from the human condition of freedom and responsibility within existentialism:
- Anguish: This arises from the profound awareness of our total freedom and the immense responsibility that comes with it. When we choose for ourselves, we simultaneously choose for all humankind, creating an image of humanity as we believe it should be.
- Abandonment: This stems from the realization that God does not exist, meaning there are no pre-ordained values or divine commands to guide us. We are ‘condemned to be free,’ left alone without excuses to determine our own essence and values.
- Despair: This relates to recognizing the limits of our control. We should focus on what depends on our will and actions, without relying on possibilities outside our influence. It means acting without hope (in the sense of external validation or guaranteed outcomes) but committing to our chosen projects.
These emotions originate from our consciousness and the confrontation with radical freedom and the lack of predetermined essence.
Epictetus: The Dichotomy of Control
Epictetus makes a distinction between what is and is not in one’s control. Which things are in our control, and which things are not?
Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher, distinguishes sharply between:
- Things within our control: These are primarily our inner states and responses – our judgments, opinions, impulses (desires and aversions), and attitudes. Essentially, anything that is our own mental activity or volition. We should focus our energy here.
- Things outside our control: These include external factors such as our body, possessions, reputation, social status, the actions of others, and external events. We should cultivate acceptance and indifference towards these things, as striving to control them leads to frustration and suffering.
Therefore, wisdom and tranquility lie in focusing effort on what we can control (our inner world) and accepting what we cannot.