Core Concepts in Social Science and Philosophy

Posted on Jan 21, 2026 in Philosophy and ethics

Foundations of Social and Natural Sciences

Social Science
The foundation and growth of human society.
Natural Science
Explains and predicts phenomena in nature.
Political Science
The study of politics, institutions, and its processes.
Sociology
The scientific study of society.
Anthropology
The study of human beings, their origins, society, and cultures.

Fundamental Sociological Concepts

Institution
An organized system of social relationships that represents society’s common values.
Social Relationships
Relationships categorized as personal, intimate, casual, civil, formal, etc.
Society
A group of people living in an organized community.
Individualism
The doctrine stating that all values, rights, and duties originate from each individual.
Culture
The beliefs, practices, views, and norms that are shared within a society.

Key Thinkers in Sociology

  • Auguste Comte: Father of Sociology; defined the word “sociology” in 1838.
  • Richard Osborne: Proposed that “one must look at society like an alien to avoid bias and prejudice” (1996).

Social Institutions and Cultural Characteristics

Major Social Institutions

  • Family: The bedrock foundation of society.
  • Education: Designed to preserve and transfer cultural knowledge.
  • Economy: The production and allocation of resources and services.
  • Government: A social institution that enforces policy and law.
  • Media: Responsible for the circulation of vital information.
  • Religion: An organized collection of beliefs.

Characteristics of Culture

  • Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.
  • Shared and contested.
  • Transmitted via socialization.
  • A set of patterned social interactions.
  • Integrated, sometimes unstable.
  • Requires language and forms of communication.

Rationality and Philosophical Foundations

Rational Argument
An argument that is logical, rational, and well-founded.
Rationalist
One who bases their knowledge, actions, and ideas on practical knowledge or reason.
Rationalism
The theory upholding the hegemony (supremacy) of reason in the human person.
Non-Rational
Different from, and perhaps higher than, experience or reason.
Ultimate Presupposition
The foundation of all ideas, which themselves cannot be proven.
Foundationalism
The idea that not everything can be argued or requires proof.

The Discipline of Philosophy

Areas of Philosophy

  1. Metaphysics: Studies reality, seeking its causes in an absolute sense.
  2. Epistemology: Addresses the question, “How do we know?” (Theory of Knowledge).
  3. Value Theory: Investigation of something of significant worth.
  4. Ethics: Addresses the question, “What is morally good?” (Moral Philosophy).
  5. Aesthetics: Addresses the question, “What is art?” (Philosophy of Art and Beauty).
  6. Logic: The study of principles by which we distinguish sound from unsound reasoning.

Reasons to Study Philosophy

  • Enhances critical thinking.
  • Improves comprehension.
  • Upgrades our lives.
  • Liberates us.

Types of Philosophers

Oral Philosopher
One who has no formal training.
Street Philosopher
One who boasts to be knowledgeable but lacks true understanding.
Amateur Philosopher
One who studies for their own satisfaction.
Student Philosopher
One who studies philosophy in school, university, or college.
Academic Philosopher
A professional at the degree level who may not earn money solely as a philosopher.
Great Philosopher
One who is systematic in their way of thinking; almost all are historical figures.

Major Schools of Thought

Idealism

Plato (Aristocles)
Father of Idealism; posited the existence of the spiritual realm and the matter realm (Forms).
George Berkeley
Subjective Idealism/Solipsism; argued that anything outside the mind is unjustified (Esse est percipi).
Immanuel Kant
Transcendental Idealism; distinguished between things as they appear (phenomena) and things as they are in themselves (noumena).
Friedrich W. Joseph Schelling
Objective Idealism; focused on the mind communicating with the mind (Absolute Identity).
Georg W. Friedrich Hegel
Absolute Idealism; believed the goal of human minds is to connect to a greater consciousness (The Absolute Spirit).

Realism

Aristotle
Father of Realism; focused on the ultimate form inherent in matter.
St. Thomas Aquinas
Associated with Moderate Realism, Platonic Realism, and Nominalism.

Pragmatism

Charles Peirce
Father of Pragmatism; argued that thought, to be valid and useful, must provide action.
John Dewey
Instrumentalism; held that theories are instruments of action and their application determines truth.
William James
Proposed that the test of a theory, belief, or doctrine must be its results (The Pragmatic Maxim).

Existentialism

Often characterized by the statement: “God is obsolete.”

Søren Kierkegaard
Father of Existentialism; explored the aesthetic, ethical, and religious stages of existence.
Friedrich Nietzsche
Argued that morality is an invention of the weak to limit the strong (Will to Power).
Jean-Paul Sartre
Believed that man makes his own definition (“Existence precedes essence”).
Martin Heidegger
Focused on the structure of being (Dasein), including factuality, existentiality, and forfeiture.

Heidegger’s Modes of Being-in-the-World

  • Umwelt: Relationship with the world (environment).
  • Mitwelt: Relationship with others.
  • Eigenwelt: Relationship with the self.

Pre-Socratic and Athenian Philosophers

Ionian School

  • Thales: Everything is made of water.
  • Anaximander: The Indefinite (Apeiron) is responsible for death and destruction.
  • Anaximenes: Air is everywhere; when heated, it turns to fire.
  • Heraclitus: “Everything flows”; change is permanent.

Italian School

  • Empedocles: First to posit the four elements (Earth, Air, Fire, Water).
  • Democritus: Discovered the atom (Atomic Theory).

Athenian School

  • Socrates: Believed evil is a product of ignorance.
  • Plato: Argued that the mind controls will and appetite.
  • Aristotle: Posited that matter and form cannot be separated (Hylomorphism).