Core Concepts in Cognitive Psychology and Learning Theories
Working Memory: Concepts and Characteristics
Working memory is a memory buffer that allows us to retain and manipulate information temporarily, as part of a broad range of essential cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and understanding.
Working Memory Capacity (Memory Span)
Memory span refers to the ability to verbally repeat a sequence of stimuli (such as digits or nonsense syllables).
Factors Affecting Memory Span
- Auditory presentation tends to produce better memory recall than visual presentation.
- Memory generally improves if the numbers are grouped by inserting a short pause between successive clusters (known as chunking).
- The Primacy and Recency Effects dictate that the first and last groups of items are usually remembered better than the central items.
- The pace at which digits or nonsense syllables are presented also affects their recovery.
Example: I am in a car with my mother, and she asks me to memorize a phone number she needs to call. I repeat the digits, sorting and grouping them into breaks. I tend to remember the first two and last two digits (Recency and Primacy). The slow pace at which my mother dictates the digits facilitates memorization.
The Brown-Peterson Paradigm: Concepts and Examples
The Brown-Peterson Paradigm demonstrated the rapid decay of short-term memory (STM) when rehearsal is prevented. Key concepts related to this paradigm include the distinction between memory systems:
- A short-term system, where temporary forgetting is primarily the result of the decay of the memory trace.
- A long-term system, where forgetting is primarily the result of interference.
Example: Previously, when ancient bus routes were used, the information was stored in my memory (LTM). However, this trace decayed due to non-use after the routes changed. When I had to relearn new routes and store them, the new information interfered with the retrieval of the previous routes.
Types of Cognitive Schemas
Schemas are mental structures that organize knowledge and expectations about the world. Types of schemas include:
Perceptual Schemas (Frames)
These schemas dictate how we organize information based on the structure and elements present in a situation.
Example: I go to a hospital. Through my organized collection of information about the elements present—sick people, nurses, doctors, etc.—I conclude that this location is a hospital.
Situational Schemas (Scripts)
These schemas establish a sequence of events or a thread of a story, organizing information temporally.
Example: I observe people screaming, acting altered, and standing in a defensive position. I use a situational schema (a script) to conclude that these people are fighting.
Social Schemas
These schemas involve the inferences individuals make about the relationships between types of individuals or social groups.
Example: Police are on a street where cars are wrecked, people are watching, and some are crying. I use a social schema, based on the relationships between these situational elements, to conclude that this is an accident.
Tolman’s Theory of Purposive Behaviorism
Tolman’s theory, often called Purposive Behaviorism, emphasizes goal-directed behavior. Key principles include:
- Intentional Conduct: Behavior is goal-oriented.
- Cognitive Maps: Knowledge is organized internally based on a mental representation of the environment.
- Selective Learning: Organisms select the most efficient means to reach a goal.
- Plasticity and Modifiability: Molar behavior (large, meaningful units of behavior) is adaptable.
Example: I want to become a psychologist (Goal/Intentional Conduct). To achieve this, I study diligently every day and plan my daily activities (Cognitive Map). I am aware that I should not overdo it, as my body needs rest, but my body adapts to the demands (Plasticity).
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Thorndike’s theory describes how learning occurs through the formation of associations between stimuli (S) and responses (R).
A. Law of Readiness (Predisposition)
This law describes the provision of an organism to make associations between a stimulus (S) and a response (R).
Example: My parents are both artists, so I have a higher predisposition to perform well in art than in biology.
B. Law of Exercise
The more an S-R association is practiced, the stronger the association becomes. That is, the more I practice, the better I perform.
C. Law of Effect
When a response is followed by a positive or satisfying effect, the S-R association is strengthened. Conversely, a negative effect weakens the association.
Example: If I practice and achieve a high score, this positive effect will generate a greater association than if I score poorly.
Procedural and Declarative Memory
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory involves remembering the steps required to perform an action or skill.
Example: Remembering the recipe for a cake.
Declarative Memory
Declarative memory involves remembering facts or specific situations without a spatiotemporal context. This memory is based on verbal discourse.
Example: When my brothers and I were young, my father once told us, after catching my brother smoking, “I am not going to prohibit you from smoking, but I will never afford the habit.” We were children, but I do not remember what year it was or where we were when he said this.
Associationism Versus Gestalt Theory
The two theories differ fundamentally in how they view mental activity and learning:
Association Theory (S-R Psychology)
- Type of Work: Productive mental activity focused on establishing a stimulus-response (S-R) bond.
- Unit of Thought: The S-R relationship.
- Focus: Details of the theory; accurate and specific connections.
Gestalt Theory
- Type of Work: Productive mental activity focused on the reorganization of items (insight).
- Unit of Thought: Organization (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts).
- Focus: Details of the theory are often considered vague or holistic.