Comprehensive Geography of Spain: Geology, Climate, & Urbanization

Posted on Oct 26, 2024 in Geography

Lithology of the Iberian Peninsula

Siliceous Area

This zone comprises the oldest rocks of the Iberian Peninsula, dating back to the Primary and Archaic eras. Predominant materials include granite, slate, quartzite, and gneiss. This area extends across Galicia, Leon, and Extremadura, with branches reaching into the western Cantabrian Mountains, Central System, Montes de Toledo, and Sierra Morena. Outcrops of these materials also appear in the Pyrenees, Catalan Coastal Range, and Penibético System.

The modeling of hard rocks like granite results in diverse landscapes depending on altitude. In areas with low water activity, joints (cracks in the rock) form. This leads to landscapes featuring domes (rounded stones), granite balls (tors when grouped), and Berrocal on mountainsides. At higher elevations with colder climates, water seeps into rocks and freezes, causing gelifraction (rock fracturing due to ice expansion). This creates a more abrupt landscape with scree slopes formed by accumulated rock fragments.

Limestone Area

Limestone, marl, and conglomerate deposits dominate this area, outcropping after the Alpine orogeny. These mountain systems are located in the eastern part of the peninsula, forming an inverted Z shape extending from the Pyrenees to the Basque Cantabrian Mountains, Iberian System, and parts of the Betic-Catalan Coastal Range.

The materials are hard but dissolve in water, resulting in karst formations. These include potholes or caves with stalactites and stalagmites, as well as underground streams that resurface through springs called “ojos”.

Clay Area

Clay, marl, and gypsum from the late Tertiary and Quaternary periods characterize this area. These materials are highly impermeable and concentrated in the depressions of the Ebro, Guadalquivir, and the northern and southern Submeseta.

The resulting relief is horizontal and largely unaffected by subsequent uplift. The soft materials erode easily, leading to landscapes with gullies (narrow clefts caused by water flow). The climate is dry with sparse vegetation, leaving the soil vulnerable to erosion during floods. When this landscape covers a large area, it’s referred to as badlands.

Air Pollution

Air pollution involves harmful chemicals in the atmosphere, often resulting from human activity. There are two main groups:

  • Primary pollutants: Released directly into the atmosphere (e.g., SO2, NO, and CO2).
  • Secondary pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere from primary pollutants through chemical reactions in sunlight.

Another form of pollution is noise pollution, caused by excessive noise.

Consequences of Air Pollution

  • Ozone layer depletion: The ozone layer has a growing hole caused by nitrous oxide and CFCs.
  • Acid rain: Pollutants return to the earth’s surface in the form of acids, acidifying the environment.
  • Greenhouse effect: While essential for life on Earth, the increase in CO2 and CFCs is causing climate change.

Objectives of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

Established in 1962 and formalized in 1986 through the Treaty of Rome, the CAP aims to:

  • Increase agricultural productivity and ensure food supplies.
  • Guarantee a fair standard of living for farmers.
  • Stabilize markets and ensure reasonable consumer prices.

To achieve these goals, the CAP employs pricing and market policies, as well as measures to improve agricultural structures.

Urbanization in Spain: The Pre-Industrial City

Urbanization is the transition from a predominantly rural to an urban society. The pre-industrial city in Spain spans from the emergence of the first cities to the 19th century.

The earliest cities were founded by the Phoenicians (Gadir, Malaka, Sexi, and Abdera) around the 8th century BC. The Greeks later colonized the coast, establishing cities like Emporion using the Hippodamian grid plan. The Romans adapted this orthogonal plan, adding drainage, paving, and water supply systems.

Muslim cities were characterized by irregular layouts with narrow, winding streets. The mosque and souk (market) occupied the center, surrounded by residential areas.

Technological Advancements in Agriculture

Agricultural productivity in Spain has increased through mechanization, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and the expansion of irrigation systems. These include:

  • Flood irrigation: Utilizing a network of ponds and ditches.
  • Spray irrigation: Distributing water like rainfall.
  • Drip irrigation: Delivering water drop by drop through a low-pressure distribution network.

Other advancements include the use of fodder crops and new farming techniques.

Management of Tourism Development

Various administrative bodies are responsible for planning, regulating, and managing tourism development in Spain. These actions occur at both national and regional levels, with a focus on:

  • Promoting information exchange and dissemination.
  • Improving the quality of tourism products.
  • Encouraging environmental protection.

Pathways to Autonomous Powers in Spain

Spanish autonomous communities achieved their status through two main pathways:

Fast Track (Article 151)

This provision in the Constitution allowed immediate access to all competencies for communities that had enjoyed autonomy during the Second Republic or, like Galicia, held a successful referendum.

Slow Pathway (Article 143)

Other communities opted for this route, initially gaining access to limited powers and gradually acquiring more. The autonomous agreements of 1992 addressed some of the resulting inequalities, although certain tax disparities remain.

Population Pyramids

A population pyramid visually represents the age and sex distribution of a population. It reveals key demographic characteristics, typically dividing the population into age groups (0-14, 15-64, and 65+).

Spanish Urban System and Hierarchy of Functions

The Spanish urban system comprises cities of various sizes and functions, interconnected within an urban network. This system is hierarchically organized based on population size and the role of each urban center. The hierarchy includes:

  • National Metropolis: Madrid and Barcelona, with the largest populations and most specialized services.
  • Regional Capitals (1st order): Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Malaga, and Zaragoza, offering high-level services (administrative and commercial).
  • Regional Capitals (2nd order): Murcia, Alicante, Granada, providing specialized functions but with a smaller area of influence.
  • Medium-sized cities: Serving commercial and service functions within a provincial area.
  • Smaller cities (under 50,000 people): Primarily focused on less specialized activities.

Types of Agriculture

Agriculture can be classified based on various factors:

  • Plant diversity: Monoculture (cultivation of a single species) vs. Polyculture (cultivation of multiple species).
  • Water usage: Rainfed (reliance on natural rainfall) vs. Irrigated (artificial water supply).
  • Productivity: Intensive (high yields through capital investment) vs. Extensive (limited yields with lower resource utilization).
  • Production purpose: Subsistence (for personal consumption) vs. Market-oriented (for commercial sale).

Internal and External Migration in Spain

Internal Migration

Internal migration refers to population movement within a country. It can be temporary or permanent, including seasonal migration (e.g., transhumance) and the rural exodus. Other types include:

  • Residential migration: Driven by factors like urban congestion and high housing costs.
  • Commuting: Daily travel between home and work.
  • Labor migration: Population exchange between economically dynamic and stagnant areas.
  • Return migration: Unemployed or retired individuals returning to their place of origin, often leading to aging in emigration areas.
  • Leisure migration: Movement for recreational purposes.

External Migration

External migration involves movement across national borders. Spain has experienced significant immigration and emigration throughout its history, influencing its population and resource balance. The Spanish Civil War also triggered substantial migration flows.

Tertiarization of the Spanish Economy

Tertiarization refers to the increasing dominance of the service sector in an economy. In Spain, this is evident in two main aspects:

  • The continuous growth of the service sector’s share of GDP.
  • The expansion of the service sector workforce, contributing to improved living standards.

The Meseta

The Meseta is a vast, elevated plateau in Spain, with an average altitude of 600 meters above sea level.

Demographic Transition in Spain (1900-1975)

This period witnessed a slow but consistent decline in birth rates and a rapid decline in mortality rates, resulting in significant natural population growth. The transition began in the early 20th century and continued until 1975.

Birth Rate

The birth rate gradually decreased, influenced by factors such as the Spanish Civil War (separation of couples and social upheaval). A brief recovery occurred in the early 1940s, followed by another decline in the early 1950s. The “baby boom” period began in the mid-1950s, driven by the pro-natalist policies of the Franco regime. From the 1960s onward, the birth rate declined again due to the rural exodus and housing challenges.

Mortality Rate

Life expectancy increased for both the elderly and children, thanks to improved living standards, sanitation, medical advancements, and education.

Natural Increase

The decline in mortality led to substantial population growth between 1950 and 1965. This growth began to slow down from the 1970s onward.

Oil Crisis (1973)

Triggered by the Arab-Israeli conflict, the 1973 oil crisis saw OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) raise oil prices and close the Suez Canal. Another crisis followed in 1979 due to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. These events significantly impacted the global economy.