Comprehensive English Grammar & Vocabulary Notes

Posted on Jul 19, 2025 in English

English Language Essentials: Topics 1-3

Gerunds and Infinitives: Part 1

Verbs Followed by Gerunds

We use the Gerund after these verbs:

admit
avoid
consider
deny
face
feel like
finish
give up
include
keep on
practise
recommend
risk
suggest
take up

Verbs Followed by Infinitives with ‘to’

We use the Infinitive with ‘to’ after these verbs:

afford
agree
appear
arrange
decide
expect
fail
happen
help
hope
manage
pretend
promise
refuse
seem
volunteer
wait

Gerund or Infinitive with Little or No Meaning Difference

We use the Gerund or Infinitive with ‘to’ after these verbs with little or no difference in meaning:

begin
bother
can’t bear
can’t stand
continue
hate
love
prefer
start

Gerund or Infinitive with Important Meaning Difference

We use the Gerund or the Infinitive with ‘to’ after these verbs, but there is an important difference in meaning:

stop to do (stop in order to do something) vs. stop doing (finish an activity)
remember to do (not forget to do something) vs. remember doing (recall a past action)
forget to do (fail to do something) vs. forget doing (not recall a past action)
like to do (think it’s a good idea) vs. like doing (enjoy the activity)
try to do (make an effort) vs. try doing (experiment with a method)
mean to do (intend to) vs. mean doing (action involves something)
go on to do (move to the next stage) vs. go on doing (continue an activity)

Gerunds and Infinitives: Part 2

Gerunds After Verbs Followed by an Object

We use the Gerund after these verbs when they are followed by an object:

catch
feel
find
hear
notice
overhear
see
watch

Infinitives with ‘to’ After Verbs Followed by an Object

We use the Infinitive with ‘to’ after these verbs when they are followed by an object:

advise
allow
ask
authorize
beg
choose
encourage
force
help
hire
inspire
invite
need
order
persuade
pick
recommend
remind
send
teach
tell
want
warn

Infinitives Without ‘to’ After Verbs Followed by an Object

We use the Infinitive without ‘to’ after these verbs when they are followed by an object:

feel
hear
help
let
make
notice
overhear
recommend
see
watch

Vocabulary: The Human Mind & Idioms

The Human Mind Vocabulary

Articulate: expresivo (able to express ideas clearly and effectively)
Baffle: perplejo (to confuse completely)
Bewildered: desorientado (perplexed and confused)
Child prodigy: niño prodigio (a child with exceptional talent or ability)
Faze: desconcertar (to disturb or disconcert)
Genius: genio (exceptional intellectual or creative power)
Get (your) words straight: expresarse con claridad (to speak clearly and coherently)
Grasp: entender/comprender (to understand something completely)
Have a gift/talent for: tener talento/que se te dé bien (to have a natural ability for something)
Memorize: memorizar (to commit to memory)
Nerd: empollón (a person who is overly intellectual, obsessive, or socially awkward)
Recall: recordar (to remember something)
Recognize: reconocer (to identify someone or something previously known)
Turn (your) mind to: enfocarse en (to direct one’s attention or thoughts towards something)
Mind wanders: desconcentrarse/desconectarse (to lose focus or concentration)

Body Idioms

Be all ears
Be at each other’s throats
Lend someone a hand
Do something behind someone’s back
Get on someone’s nerves
Pick someone’s brains
Get something off your chest
Pull someone’s leg
Give someone the cold shoulder
Put your foot down
Have someone under your thumb
Stick your neck out for someone

Similes

As brave as a lion
As free as a bird
As safe as houses
As busy as a bee
As good as gold
As fresh as a daisy
As solid as a rock
As clear as crystal
As white as a sheet
As cold as ice
As plain as day
Be like a dream come true
As cool as a cucumber
As easy as ABC
As quick as a flash
As quiet as a mouse
Run like the wind

Common Verb Collocations

Verbs with ‘Take’

take a call
take control
take a course
take cover
take a decision
take effect
take interest
take offense
take part
take place
take power
take a risk
take a test

Verbs with ‘Make’

make an apology
make an attempt
make a call
make a change
make a choice
make a comment
make a complaint
make a decision
make a difference
make an improvement
make a mistake
make a suggestion
make use of something

Verbs with ‘Do’

do business
do a course
do an experiment
do harm
do household chores
do the ironing
do research
do a test
do your best

Grammar: Modals & Tenses

Modal Verbs

(don’t) have to
must/mustn’t
(don’t) need to
can’t
shouldn’t
ought to
had better not
(not) be allowed to
be supposed to
may
might

English Verb Tenses

Past Continuous: were doing
Past Simple: I went
Present Perfect: I have fixed the TV
Past Perfect: I hadn’t seen you for a long time
Past Perfect Continuous: had been doing
Present Perfect Continuous: have been doing

Topic 4: Academic Fields & Conditionals

Academic Fields

anatomy
archeology
architecture
biomechanics
biomedicine
chemistry
engineering
forensic science
genetics
geology
neuroscience
nutritional science
psychology
sociology

Compound Nouns & Adjectives

breakthrough: descubrimiento/avance (a significant discovery or development)
crackdown: represión/medida estricta (a series of severe measures to restrict undesirable behavior)
cutback: reducción (a reduction in amount or quantity)
drawback: desventaja (a disadvantage or problem)
feedback: retroalimentación (information about reactions to a product, person’s performance, etc.)
lifespan: esperanza de vida (the length of time for which a person or animal lives or a thing functions)
outcome: resultado/consecuencia (the way a thing turns out; a consequence)
outcry: protesta pública (a strong public expression of protest or disapproval)
outlook: perspectiva (a person’s point of view or general attitude to life)
outset: comienzo (the beginning of something)
setback: contratiempo (a reversal or check in progress)
full-scale: a gran escala/completo (as large or complete as possible)
lightweight: ligero (of little weight)
long-term: a largo plazo (occurring over or involving a relatively long period of time)
worldwide: mundialmente (extending or reaching throughout the world)
worthwhile: que vale la pena (worth the time, money, or effort spent; useful and important)

Causes, Reasons, and Results

bring about: producir/causar (to cause something to happen)
due to: debido a (because of)
give rise to: dar origen a (to cause something to happen or begin)
have an impact on: tener un impacto en (to have a strong effect on someone or something)
in turn: a su vez/por consiguiente (as a result of something else in a series of events)
lead to: llevar a/resultar en (to cause something to happen or exist)
owing to: debido a (because of)
prompt (someone to do something): incitar/impulsar a alguien a hacer algo (to make someone decide to say or do something)
repercussion: repercusión/consecuencia (an unintended consequence occurring some time after an event or action)
side effect: efecto secundario (a secondary, typically undesirable, effect of a drug or medical treatment)
spark off: desencadenar/provocar (to cause something to start or happen, especially an argument or fighting)
stem from: provenir de/derivar de (to originate from or be caused by)

Conditional Structures

Zero Conditional

If + present simple, present simple

Example: If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

First Conditional

If + present simple, will + infinitive

Example: If you don’t hurry, you will miss the train.

Second Conditional

If + past simple, would/wouldn’t + infinitive

Example: If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.

Third Conditional

If + past perfect, would/wouldn’t have + past participle

Example: If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.

Mixed Conditionals

If + Past Simple, would/wouldn’t have + Past Participle
Example: If I liked that band, I would have gone to see them in concert.
If + Past Perfect, would/wouldn’t + infinitive
Example: If I had had breakfast, I wouldn’t be hungry now.

Other Conditional Structures

unless
as long as
provided (that)
in case
supposing (that)
should
were to
happened to
I wish

Topic 5: Future Tenses & Legal Vocabulary

Future Tenses

Be going to: Predictions and plans/intentions for the future
Example: Next year I am going to do more exercise. / I think the situation is going to get worse.
Will/Won’t: Spontaneous decisions, predictions, promises, facts
Example: I believe that one day we will live on Mars. / It’s cold, I will close the window now. / I’ll be 17 next year.
Present Continuous for Future: Fixed arrangements
Example: Experts from around the world are meeting next month.
Present Simple for Future: Timetables and schedules
Example: My train leaves at 9 PM tomorrow. / When I go to university, I’ll study chemistry.
Future Continuous: Actions in progress at a specific future time
Example: At this time tomorrow, I’ll be flying to the US.
Future Perfect Simple: Actions completed before a specific future time
Example: I will have gone to bed by midnight.
Future Perfect Continuous: Duration of an action up to a specific future time
Example: By 8 PM, I’ll have been revising history for five hours!
Be on the point/verge of: About to happen very soon
Example: They are on the verge of inventing something really revolutionary.

Legal & Justice Vocabulary

acquit someone of charges: absolver a alguien de cargos (to declare someone not guilty of a crime)
ban someone from: prohibir a alguien de (to officially or legally prohibit someone from doing something or going somewhere)
court: tribunal (a place where legal cases are heard)
designated/non-designated: designado/no designado (officially chosen or appointed for a particular purpose)
disorderly conduct: conducta desordenada (behavior that disturbs the public peace or order)
disturbance: perturbación (an interruption of peace or quiet)
do community service: hacer trabajo comunitario (unpaid work that an offender does for the benefit of the community as a punishment)
impose a curfew: imponer un toque de queda (to order people to stay indoors between certain hours)
issue someone with a fine: imponer una multa (to officially give someone a penalty payment)
(on-the-spot) fine: multa inmediata (a fine given immediately at the scene of an offense)
judge: juez (a public official appointed to decide cases in a law court)
littering: tirar basura (dropping rubbish in a public place)
make a prank/hoax call: hacer una llamada de broma/falsa alarma (to make a deceptive phone call)
one-off/repeated shoplifting: robo en tiendas (único/repetido) (the act of stealing goods from a shop)
parking ticket: multa de estacionamiento (a notice of a fine for parking illegally)
prosecute: procesar (to institute legal proceedings against someone)
receive a suspended sentence: recibir una sentencia suspendida (to be given a prison sentence that will not take effect unless a further crime is committed)
settle a fine: liquidar una multa (to pay a fine)
social worker: trabajador social (a person who works to help people with their social and personal problems)
supervise: supervisar (to observe and direct the execution of a task or activity)
valid: válido (legally or officially acceptable)
validate: validar (to make or declare legally or officially valid)
vandalism: vandalismo (action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property)

Prepositional Phrases

by means of: por medio de (by using)
in addition to: además de (as well as)
in a bid to: en un intento de (in an attempt to)
in aid of: a beneficio de (for the purpose of helping)
in favour of: a favor de (in support of)
in order to: con el fin de (for the purpose of)
in/out of touch with: en/sin contacto con (in/out of communication or awareness with)
in response to: en respuesta a (as a reaction to)
in the process of: en el proceso de (in the course of doing something)
on account of: a causa de (because of)
on behalf of: en nombre de (representing)
on the strength of: basado en/gracias a (based on the power or influence of)

Adverbs & Connectors

additionally: adicionalmente (in addition)
and yet: y sin embargo (despite that)
arise: surgir/aparecer (to emerge; become apparent)
collaborate with: colaborar con (to work jointly on an activity or project)
highly: altamente (to a high degree)
indeed: de hecho/ciertamente (in fact; used to emphasize a statement or response)
make a formal apology: pedir disculpas formalmente (to apologize officially)
matter: importar/asunto (to be of importance)
merely: simplemente/solamente (just; only)
a number of: varios/numerosos (several)
numerous: numerosos (many)
occasionally: ocasionalmente (sometimes)
several: varios (more than two but not many)
the vast majority of: la gran mayoría de (most of)
(be) willing to: estar dispuesto a (ready, eager, or prepared to do something)

Topic 7: Advertising & Passive Voice

Advertising and Selling Vocabulary

ad/advert/advertisement: anuncio/publicidad (a notice or announcement in a public medium promoting a product, service, or event)
banner: pancarta/banderola (a long strip of cloth or paper bearing a slogan or design, carried in a demonstration or procession or hung in a public place)
billboard: valla publicitaria (a large outdoor board for displaying advertisements)
brand loyalty: fidelidad a la marca (the tendency of some consumers to continue buying the same brand of goods rather than competing brands)
brand name: nombre de marca (a name given by the manufacturer or merchant to a product or range of products)
brochure: folleto (a small book or magazine containing pictures and information about a product or service)
endorse: promocionar/respaldar (to declare one’s public approval or support of someone or something)
flyer: volante/panfleto (a small handbill advertising an event or product)
free sample: muestra gratuita (a small amount of a product given to potential customers to try)
freebie: regalo promocional (something given free of charge, especially as a promotional item)
influencer: influencer (a person with the ability to influence potential buyers of a product or service by promoting or recommending the items on social media)
launch a marketing campaign: lanzar una campaña de marketing (to start a planned series of activities to promote a product or service)
leaflet: folleto (a printed sheet of paper, often folded, containing information or advertising)
logo: logotipo (a symbol or other design adopted by an organization to identify its products, uniform, vehicles, etc.)
make cold calls: hacer llamadas no solicitadas (to make an unsolicited visit or telephone call to a prospective customer)
manipulate: manipular (to control or influence a person or situation cleverly, unfairly, or unscrupulously)
pop-up: anuncio emergente (a new window that appears suddenly on a computer screen, typically to display an advertisement)
product placement: emplazamiento de producto (a practice in which manufacturers of goods or providers of a service gain exposure for their products by paying for them to be featured in films and television programs)
promote: promocionar (to support or actively encourage; further the progress of)
slogan: eslogan (a short and striking or memorable phrase used in advertising)
word-of-mouth publicity: publicidad de boca en boca (the passing of information from person to person by oral communication)

Passive Voice Structures

Passive Infinitives and Gerunds

Examples: I love being spoilt. / I want to be respected.

Passive with Verbs with Two Objects

Examples: I was given a surprise. / A surprise was given to me.

Causatives

We use these to describe actions which we don’t do ourselves, but arrange for someone else to do.

He got his friend to fix his computer.
He is having his friend fix his computer.
He had his computer fixed by a friend.

The Passive with ‘Say’, ‘Know’, ‘Believe’

It + be + past participle of say, know, believe + that
Example: It is said that the situation is worse today.
Subject + be + past participle of say, know, believe + to + present/perfect infinitive
Example: The situation is said to be worse today.

We use this structure to talk about what people in general say, know, or believe about something.

Topic 8: Compound Adjectives

Compound Adjectives with Body Parts

breakneck: muy rápido (dangerously fast)
ear-splitting: ensordecedor (very loud)
eye-catching: llamativo (immediately noticeable and attractive)
eye-opening: revelador (providing new and surprising insights)
hair-raising: escalofriante (extremely frightening or exciting)
heart-stopping: impactante (extremely exciting or frightening)
heartwarming: conmovedor (causing a feeling of pleasure and happiness)
mind-blowing: impresionante (overwhelmingly impressive or astonishing)
nail-biting: emocionante/de infarto (causing great suspense or anxiety)
soul-destroying: deprimente (extremely monotonous and tedious, causing one to lose enthusiasm and hope)