Comparing Italian and German Unification
The Unification of Italy (19th Century)
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Italian peninsula was divided as follows:
- North: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Veneto and Lombardy were controlled by Austria.
- Center: The Papal States and small states like Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, under Austrian influence.
- South: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Naples.
The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia had a liberal, constitutional political system. King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Cavour aimed to unify Italy under a constitutional monarchy. A rising bourgeoisie supported unification. Communications, such as railways and roads, were streamlined. There was a secularization of the church, and strong diplomatic relations with France and England were established. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia became an industrial kingdom with a well-equipped army and a diplomatic corps.
Another movement to unify Italy was led by Mazzini, whose goal was to create a democratic, secular, and unified republic through popular insurrection.
Stages of Italian Unification
Phase 1: War Against Austria (1858)
In 1858, France and Piedmont signed the Plombières Agreement. Piedmont would cede Savoy and Nice to France in exchange for French aid against Austria. The following year, war broke out between Austria and Piedmont. Piedmontese victories at Magenta and Solferino resulted in Piedmont receiving Lombardy.
Phase 2: Diplomatic Maneuvering and Southern Conquest
Piedmont diplomatically approached England and encouraged popular uprisings against Austria in Parma, Modena, and Tuscany. These states subsequently joined Piedmont. Simultaneously, Garibaldi, with a small army and popular support, conquered Southern Italy. He recognized Victor Emmanuel II as King of Italy.
Phase 3: Incorporation of Venice and Rome
Veneto joined the Italian unification after King Victor Emmanuel II assisted Prussia (Treaty of Vienna). In 1870, Garibaldi’s troops stormed Rome, and Pope Pius IX was confined to the Vatican. On August 1, 1871, Rome became the capital of the new Italian state.
The Unification of Germany (19th Century)
Following the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was created. Nationalistic sentiments grew, expressed through philosophy, history, poetry, and music. These currents, influenced by Romantic, liberal, and democratic ideals, called for the creation of a German nation.
Economically, the Zollverein (customs union), established in 1834, created a free market and facilitated commercial circulation. Prussia, the strongest state, was a key player, while Austria was excluded. Rivalry between Prussia and Austria, both authoritarian states, intensified.
The failed revolution of 1848 saw liberals and democrats briefly form a parliament in Frankfurt with representatives from various German states, elected by universal male suffrage. However, Frederick William IV of Prussia rejected the offer of the German crown.
The German bourgeoisie favored unification, but under a Prussian-style authoritarian state. The architect of unification was Otto von Bismarck, Prussia’s Chancellor. He prepared an extraordinary army, strengthened the administration, and sought diplomatic support to isolate Austria.
Stages of German Unification
Phase 1: The War of the Duchies (1864)
Prussia and Austria jointly seized Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark, considering them German duchies.
Phase 2: Austro-Prussian War (1866)
Bismarck declared war on Austria. Austria was defeated and excluded from the unification process. Prussia then created the North German Confederation in 1867.
Phase 3: Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
The war’s origin lay in France’s veto of a Prussian candidate for the Spanish throne in 1868. The Prussian army defeated the French, capturing Napoleon III and ending the Second French Empire. On January 18, 1871, German generals proclaimed William I, Emperor of the Second Reich, at the Palace of Versailles. The Southern German states joined the Second Reich, and Alsace and Lorraine were incorporated into Germany.