Colonialism: Causes, Dominance, and Organization
Causes of Colonialism
Economic Factors: European countries sought new markets to sell their surplus production and to buy raw materials (iron, charcoal, cotton, etc.) at the lowest possible prices. They also invested surplus capital where labor allowed for greater profits.
Demographic Factors: Excessive population growth led to a search for work. Colonialism offered many Europeans the opportunity to emigrate and improve their living conditions.
Political Factors: With borders stabilized in Europe, the great powers competed for political and military control of geographical areas of economic interest.
Ideological Factors: Conservative nationalism defended the idea that some nations were superior and had the right to impose their will on others. For example, Europeans believed they were obligated to bring health and education to other peoples, leading to racism and the belief in white superiority. Some intellectuals, political leaders, and trade unionists opposed colonialism, denouncing exploitation and defending the right of colonized peoples to self-determination.
European Dominance
The Second Industrial Revolution transformed the leading European powers. Technical innovations, banking, and new forms of work organization increased production and trade, enhancing their technical, military, and financial superiority. Europe then embarked on a path of world domination, taking control of less advanced countries in Africa and Asia, creating colonial empires. These lands often lacked organized states and had weak economic and political structures.
Exploration and Conquest
Parts of Africa, Asia, and the oceans were unknown. Scientific expeditions and geographical explorations, such as those by Stanley and Livingstone, made it possible to quickly learn about and conquer these territories. Europe’s military and technical superiority was so great that their enemies seemed weak.
Colonial Organization
Colonies were organized to be controlled by the metropolis. There were three types of colonies:
- Operating Colonies: The metropolis focused on economic exploitation. These colonies had no self-government, and Europeans pursued a policy of occupation. A governor, military commanders, and officials maintained order. Colonists appropriated land for plantations or exploited deposits of copper, gold, or diamonds. White owners controlled companies, and workers received very little pay. These colonies could not trade with other countries.
- Settlement Colonies: These colonies had a climate that attracted a significant white population. They migrated to establish a dependency on the metropolis. For example, Canada, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand achieved dominion status within the British Empire.
- Protectorates: These territories retained their state organization, with the local government and administrative machinery. The metropolitan government dominated local government and reserved functions such as external defense and politics. The British protectorate in Egypt, for example, participated in the construction of the Suez Canal, which allowed passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea, facilitating travel to India without having to circumnavigate Africa.