Colonial War, Cuban Independence, and the 1898 Crisis
Colonial War (1895-1898) and the Crisis of 1898
Background
In October 1868, an insurrection broke out in Cuba – The Long War – initiated by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes with the Grito de Yara. The United States supported this movement.
In 1878, Martínez Campos signed the Zanjón Peace, which included the improvement of administrative and political conditions and a broad amnesty.
A year later, a new revolt broke out, the Little War, which was easily suppressed but served as a prelude to the Cuban Independence War.
Independence Movement
The Cuban independence war inspired José Martí. The movement’s social base comprised the peasantry, the bourgeoisie (which traded mostly with the U.S.), and the popular classes. The Cuban Revolutionary Party, founded by Jose Marti in 1892, promoted the independence movement, which exploded in 1895 with the “Grito de Baire”.
Martinez Campos was replaced by Weyler, who sent many soldiers and implemented a policy of repression, dividing the territory into three “trails” (fortifications) to prevent the passage of insurgents.
Cubans were well-suited to the terrain and had ordnance from the USA. Spanish public opinion was initially favorable to the war, with only socialists and anarchists opposing it. This period also saw the assassination of Cánovas.
Sagasta, of the liberal party, attempted a law of autonomy, amnesty, and understanding with the USA. Weyler was replaced by General Blanco.
The situation was similar in the Philippines, where an insurrection launched by José Rizal led to the expulsion of the Spanish and religious orders and the confiscation of estates. General Polavieja started the repression, and was replaced by F. Primo de Rivera, who sought agreements with the Filipinos.
United States Participation in the Conflict
The United States had major economic interests in the area and desired to occupy Cuba. The U.S. became involved in the conflict in 1897, offering to buy the island for three hundred million dollars and issuing an ultimatum if it was not sold immediately. The bombing and collapse of the U.S. battleship Maine (February 1898) led to the U.S. Congress declaring war on Spain in April 1898.
The Spanish-American War extended to the Philippines and had to be resolved quickly due to the imbalance of forces. Key battles included Cavite, Philippines, and Santiago de Cuba.
The Signing of the Treaty of Paris
The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898. Spain recognized the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States in exchange for payment, and sold the Caroline Islands, the Marianas, and Palau to Germany in 1899.
Economic and Political Consequences
Economically, Minister Fernández Villaverde reformed taxes and debt issuance, with a profound reorganization of finances, leading to a surplus at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a return of capital, which allowed for significant development in banking, and the industry quickly recovered from the loss of colonial markets.
There were no significant political consequences. The Restoration and the turnismo survived. In 1899, Silvela replaced Sagasta, but growing nationalist movements and the dynastic parties were seen as incapable of implementing new policies and modernization.
Human Losses
Estimated at over 120,000.
Medium-Term Consequences
Growth of peripheral nationalism and economic protectionism.
The Main Consequence
The main consequence was moral and psychological: a collective depression. The literature known as the Disaster of 98, manifested in a very special intellectual pessimism of the Generation of 98.
A direct consequence of this reflection on the Spanish decline was regeneracionismo.
The Regeneration
The regeneration was a political trend that spread following the 1898 crisis.
Regeneracionismo represented the views of large sections of the middle class and small and middle bourgeoisie, who did not identify with the political system of the Restoration.
It was an ethical approach to society and politics that was expressed in different proposals:
- A critical feedback, but from within the system, represented by Silvela or Maura, ministers of the Conservative Party, who limited their criticism to the most negative aspects of the system, but accepted its general validity.
- A regeneracionismo outside the system, with figures such as Joaquín Costa, Santiago Alba, or Basilio Paraíso, who criticized the political system of the Restoration in its entirety, as a “sick body” and “degenerate.”
A direct heir of this movement is the generation of 98, a literary movement, influenced by the disaster of 98, the Regeneration, and Joaquín Costa.