Colonial Rule Forms and Impact: 19th Century Imperialism
Forms of Colonial Rule
European powers used diverse forms of colonial rule:
- Concessions: Territories obtained from independent countries. Example: Hong Kong in China.
- Protectorates: Maintained indigenous governments, but the colonial power controlled foreign policy, the army, and the exploitation of certain resources. Example: India.
- True Colonies: Territories under the sovereignty of the metropole.
- Settler Dominions: Involved large-scale settling of European populations and were self-administered. Example: Canada.
Formation of Colonial Empires
The Scramble for Africa
Until 1870, the major powers set out to explore the continent. To prevent possible clashes, they met at the Berlin Conference in 1884, where they established the rules for the occupation of the continent, provided the effective control of the territory was necessary, free navigation on the Niger and Congo Rivers, and free trade. The UK tried to form a continuous colonial strip. Other countries like Belgium, Portugal, Germany, Spain, and Italy contributed to the division of the continent.
Imperialism in Asia and America
In Asia, systems of concessions and distribution in areas of influence prevailed. Even so, certain territories were taken over by the UK, France, and the Netherlands. Russia incorporated Siberia, Korea, and Manchuria, and the United States drove Spain out of the Philippines. In America, the United States extended its influence.
Consequences of Imperialism
Colonialism was generally positive for the metropoles, but it also intensified confrontations that would lead to World War I. For the dominated nations, colonialism was negative because it imposed unequal trade. Society was divided into a foreign minority, who controlled the government and wealth and lived in luxurious neighborhoods, and the indigenous majority, forced to work and confined to separate neighborhoods or reserves.
The Reign of Fernando VII: Stages
In 1814, after the War of Independence, Fernando VII returned to Spain, where he was welcomed by the people. His reign (1814-1833) went through three stages, marked by confrontations between absolutists and liberals:
The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)
Fernando VII abolished the Constitution of 1812, annulled the work of the Cortes of Cadiz, and then persecuted the liberals. Some of them went into exile, and others tried to gain power through military pronouncements.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
In 1820, the pronouncement of Commander Rafael de Riego in Seville succeeded. Fernando VII swore to the constitution and accepted that the liberals would reestablish the work of the Cortes of Cadiz.
Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
It began with the repression of the liberals. The situation changed in 1830, due to the succession problem, since when Isabel was born, Fernando repealed the Salic Law. Don Carlos did not accept it and had the support of the absolutists, and that made Maria Cristina rely on the liberals to guarantee her daughter’s throne.