Collective Behavior, Social Movements, and Social Change in the Modern World
Chapter 23: Collective Behavior & Social Movements
Collective Behavior
Collective behavior refers to activities involving a large number of people, often deviating from established norms. Studying collective behavior can be challenging due to its diverse nature, encompassing a wide range of human actions. Its variability makes it difficult to explain, and much of collective behavior is transitory, making it hard to observe and analyze.
Social Movements
Social movements are organized activities that either promote or resist social change. They involve collectivities, large groups of individuals with minimal interaction, lacking well-defined norms, social boundaries, and exhibiting weak adherence to established societal rules.
Types of Collective Behavior
Crowds
A crowd is a gathering of people sharing a common focus of attention. Different types of crowds include:
- Casual crowd: A loosely connected group with minimal interaction.
- Conventional crowd: Planned gatherings following a clear set of norms, such as a religious service or a concert.
- Expressive crowd: Drawn together by an emotional appeal, like a political rally or a protest.
- Acting crowd: Driven by an intense, shared purpose, such as a mob or a group of rescuers responding to an emergency.
Mobs and Riots
- Mob: A highly emotional crowd driven by a violent or destructive goal.
- Riot: A social eruption characterized by intense emotions and violence, often lacking a specific target.
These forms of collective behavior can be powerful agents of social change, as organized masses can challenge the existing power structures and demand transformation.
Theories of Collective Behavior
Contagion Theory
Contagion theory suggests that crowds exert a hypnotic influence over their members, creating a sense of anonymity and diminished personal responsibility. This theory argues that individuals lose themselves in the crowd, becoming susceptible to its collective will.
Convergence Theory
Convergence theory posits that crowd behavior arises from the shared characteristics and motivations of the individuals who choose to join. People with pre-existing beliefs and values come together, and their collective actions reflect these shared sentiments. This theory emphasizes the importance of individual agency in shaping collective behavior.
Emergent Norm Theory
Emergent norm theory proposes that crowds develop their own norms and rules of behavior as they evolve. In the absence of pre-existing guidelines, individuals within the crowd respond to the situation and each other, creating a dynamic and fluid set of expectations. This theory highlights the adaptability and emergent nature of collective behavior.
Dispersed Collectivities: Mass Behavior
Mass behavior refers to collective behavior among people spread over a wide geographical area. This can include phenomena such as:
- Fads: Unconventional social patterns that people embrace enthusiastically for a short period, often driven by social conformity and the desire to be part of a trend.
- Mass hysteria: Widespread fear and irrational behavior in response to a real or perceived threat. This can be fueled by rumors, uncertainty, and a lack of reliable information.
- Rumors: Unverified information that spreads rapidly, often distorted through social transmission. Rumors thrive in environments characterized by uncertainty and anxiety.
Types of Social Movements
Social movements can be categorized based on their goals and the scope of change they seek:
- Alternative movements: Aim for limited change within a specific aspect of society, often targeting a narrow group of people. For example, a movement promoting veganism seeks to change dietary habits within a segment of the population.
- Redemptive movements: Advocate for radical change in individuals’ lives, often with a focus on personal transformation and self-improvement. Religious movements or support groups for addiction recovery fall under this category.
- Reformative movements: Seek limited social change but target the entire society. These movements aim to reform existing institutions or policies. Examples include movements advocating for environmental protection or gender equality.
- Revolutionary movements: Aim for a fundamental transformation of society, challenging existing power structures and advocating for systemic change. Historical examples include the French Revolution or the Russian Revolution.
Theories of Social Movements
Deprivation Theory
Deprivation theory suggests that social movements emerge among people who feel deprived of resources, rights, or opportunities. This sense of deprivation, particularly when compared to others in society (relative deprivation), can fuel resentment and motivate collective action for change.
Mass Society Theory
Mass society theory argues that people join social movements to gain a sense of belonging and purpose, particularly in modern societies characterized by individualism and social isolation. This theory emphasizes the psychological and social benefits of participating in collective action.
Structural Strain Theory
Structural strain theory identifies six factors that contribute to the emergence of social movements:
- Structural conduciveness: The existence of social problems or issues that create a need for change.
- Structural strain: A perceived gap between societal ideals and the reality of social conditions, leading to frustration and discontent.
- Growth and spread of an explanation: The development and dissemination of ideas that explain the causes of social problems and propose solutions.
- Precipitating factors: Specific events that trigger collective action by highlighting the urgency of the issue.
- Mobilization for action: The organization and mobilization of resources and people to support the movement.
- Lack of social control: The response of authorities and institutions to the movement, with weaker control increasing the likelihood of success.
Resource Mobilization Theory
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources, such as money, volunteers, media attention, and organizational skills, in the success or failure of social movements. This theory highlights the strategic and logistical challenges of sustaining collective action.
New Social Movements Theory
New social movements theory focuses on the rise of movements in post-industrial societies that prioritize quality of life issues, social justice, and identity politics. These movements often address concerns beyond traditional economic interests and draw support from diverse social groups.
Stages in Social Movements
Social movements typically go through distinct stages:
- Emergence: Recognition of a social problem and the need for change.
- Coalescence: Recruitment of members, development of strategies, and mobilization of resources.
- Bureaucratization: Formalization of organizational structures, roles, and procedures to enhance efficiency.
- Decline: The movement may decline due to internal divisions, loss of support, achievement of goals, or repression by authorities.
Chapter 24: Social Change and Postmodernity
Social Change
Social change refers to the transformation of culture and social institutions over time. It is a constant feature of societies, though the pace and direction of change can vary significantly. Social change can be driven by various factors, including:
Culture and Change
- Invention: The creation of new objects, ideas, social patterns, or technologies that reshape society.
- Discovery: Recognizing and utilizing existing elements of a culture in new ways, leading to social change.
- Diffusion: The spread of cultural elements, ideas, technologies, or people from one society to another, leading to cultural exchange and transformation.
Conflict and Change
Social conflict, arising from inequalities and power struggles between different groups, can be a powerful driver of social change. Karl Marx, for example, argued that class conflict between capitalists and workers would eventually lead to a socialist revolution.
Ideas and Change
Ideas, beliefs, and values play a crucial role in shaping social change. Max Weber highlighted the influence of religious ideas on the development of capitalism, demonstrating how shifts in beliefs can have profound societal consequences.
Demographic Change
Changes in population size, composition, and distribution can lead to social change. Factors like birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns impact resource allocation, social policies, and cultural norms.
Modernity
Modernity refers to the social patterns and characteristics associated with industrialization and the shift from traditional to modern societies. Key features of modernity include:
- Decline of small, traditional communities: Industrialization and urbanization led to the decline of rural communities and the rise of large, impersonal cities.
- Expansion of personal choice: Modernity brought about increased individual autonomy and a wider range of choices in various aspects of life.
- Increasing social diversity: Modern societies are characterized by greater diversity in terms of culture, ethnicity, religion, and lifestyles.
- Orientation toward the future: Modernity emphasizes progress, innovation, and a forward-looking perspective.
Perspectives on Modernity
Ferdinand Tonnies: Loss of Community
Tonnies argued that modernity led to a shift from Gemeinschaft (community), characterized by strong social bonds and shared traditions, to Gesellschaft (society), marked by individualism, impersonal relationships, and a focus on efficiency.
Emile Durkheim: Division of Labor
Durkheim observed a shift from mechanical solidarity, based on shared values and common bonds, to organic solidarity, characterized by interdependence and specialization of labor. He argued that modern societies need strong norms to maintain social cohesion and prevent anomie, a sense of normlessness.
Max Weber: Rationalization
Weber argued that modernity was characterized by increasing rationalization, a process of applying reason and logic to social and economic life. This led to greater efficiency but also to a disenchantment of the world, as traditional values and beliefs lost their influence.
Karl Marx: Capitalism
Marx viewed modernity through the lens of capitalism, arguing that industrialization led to the emergence of a capitalist class system marked by inequality and exploitation. He believed that capitalism contained the seeds of its own destruction and would eventually be overthrown by a socialist revolution.
Mass Society and Class Society
Both mass society and class society perspectives focus on the broad societal changes brought about by industrialization. Mass society theory emphasizes the homogenizing and atomizing effects of modernity, while class society theory highlights the persistence of social stratification and inequality.
David Riesman: Social Character
Riesman argued that modernization led to changes in social character, the personality patterns common to members of a society. He observed a shift from tradition-directedness, characterized by conformity to long-established norms, to other-directedness, marked by a greater emphasis on adaptability, conformity to peers, and a desire for approval.
Postmodernity
Postmodernity refers to a set of perspectives that question the assumptions and narratives of modernity. Key themes of postmodern thought include:
- Modernity has failed: Postmodernists argue that modernity has not fulfilled its promises of progress, equality, and rationality. They point to persistent social problems, inequalities, and the destructive consequences of modern technologies.
- The bright light of “progress” is fading: Postmodernity is marked by a sense of disillusionment with the idea of linear progress and a skepticism towards grand narratives of history.
- Science no longer holds the answers: Postmodernists question the objectivity and universality of scientific knowledge, highlighting the limitations and potential biases of scientific inquiry.
- Cultural debates are intensifying: Postmodernity is characterized by a fragmentation of knowledge and values, leading to increased cultural pluralism and a questioning of traditional sources of authority.
- Social institutions are changing: The rise of a post-industrial society, globalization, and the information revolution are transforming social institutions and creating new forms of social organization.
Postmodernity represents a shift from the certainties and grand narratives of modernity to a more fragmented, fluid, and skeptical worldview. It embraces diversity, challenges traditional power structures, and emphasizes the importance of subjective experience and interpretation.