Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Problem Solving, and Decision Making

Posted on Jun 25, 2026 in Psychology

I. Memory Processes and Structures

Long-Term Memory Foundations

Long-term memory is broadly divided into implicit and explicit memory. Memory for past events is called episodic memory, while memory for facts about the world is called semantic memory. Memory that involves conscious recollection is explicit or declarative memory. Memories we are not conscious of are implicit memories.

Encoding and Retrieval

  • Encoding: Transforming information from sensory or short-term memory into long-term memory.
  • Elaborative Encoding: Increases the chance new knowledge is stored and improves recall.
  • Retrieval: The process of accessing a stored memory trace. It is a reconstructive process, not a passive one.
  • Encoding-Specificity Principle: We recall information better if we are in the same context (external or internal) in which we originally learned the material.

Memory Stages

  1. Encoding
  2. Storage
  3. Retrieval

II. Memory Failures and Amnesia

Amnesia Types

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Difficulty remembering events that happened before a brain injury.
  • Anterograde Amnesia: Difficulty forming new memories after brain damage.

Common Memory Errors

  • Misattribution: Associating a memory with the wrong time, place, or person.
  • Cryptomnesia: A source monitoring error where an investigator believes a research idea is original when it is not.
  • Transience: Learned information becomes less available over time.
  • Blocking: Information is temporarily inaccessible (e.g., the tip-of-the-tongue state).

III. Autobiographical and Flashbulb Memory

Memory is a kaleidoscope, not a “snow globe”; it is rearranged and rebuilt every time it is retrieved. This process is influenced by schemas—mental frameworks used to filter or fill in details.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of significant events. Research shows they follow the same forgetting curve as ordinary memories; the only difference is our confidence in their accuracy.

IV. Eyewitness Testimony

  • Misinformation Effect: Incorrect information provided after an event can alter a person’s recall.
  • Confirming Feedback: Telling a witness they are correct inflates confidence and can rewrite the memory.
  • Own-Race Bias (ORB): Better identification of in-group members compared to out-group members.

V. Problem Solving and Decision Making

Heuristics

  • Representativeness: Judging likelihood based on stereotypes.
  • Availability: Judging frequency based on how easily examples come to mind.
  • Anchoring and Adjustment: Being influenced by an initial number and failing to adjust sufficiently.

Obstacles

  • Mental Set: Persisting in an old strategy even when a simpler one exists.
  • Functional Fixedness: Inability to see a new use for an object.

VI. Study Strategies

  • Retrieval Practice: Testing yourself is more effective than re-reading.
  • Spaced Practice: Spreading out study sessions guards against overconfidence.
  • Meta-comprehension: Assessing how well one understands information. Students are often overconfident, especially those in the bottom quartile.