Cognitive Processes: Attention, Perception, and Memory Mechanisms

Posted on Nov 20, 2025 in Psychology and Sociology

Attention and Its Determinants

Types of Attention

  • Voluntary
  • Involuntary
  • Habitual

External Determinants

Intensity, size, contrast, motion, novelty, repetition, anatomy or shape.

Internal Determinants

States of the body (aches, effects of chemicals, emotional states, etc.), motivations, general habits, expectations.

Laws of Perception

The Laws of Perception, often associated with Gestalt theory, concern how we organize stimuli. This includes perceptual organization and the concept of figure-ground relationship.

Gestalt Laws of Organization

  • Similarity: Grouping elements that are alike.
  • Symmetry: Grouping elements that form a symmetric equilibrium.
  • Continuity: Different stimuli are seen as a unit.
  • Closure: Completion of incomplete figures.
  • Proximity: Grouping elements that are near each other.
  • Constancy of Shape: The perception of shape remains constant even if the object changes place.
  • Constancy of Size: The perceived size varies by distance.
  • Prägnanz (Record): When we understand an object, we tend to view it consistently in the same way.

Memory: Types and Functions

Four primary types of memory retrieval are identified:

  1. Recall or Reinstatement: Remembering a past experience through partial cues.
  2. Evoke: An active memory updated through behavior without the need for specific keys (e.g., biking).
  3. Recognition: Relating or comparing a current perception with earlier ones (e.g., a multiple-choice question).
  4. Re-learning: A critical reassessment of prior knowledge. The reduced time and effort required compared to the initial learning confirms that the knowledge is stored in memory.

Forgetting (Oblivion) and Memory Duration

Oblivion (Forgetting)

Oblivion refers to the total or partial loss of retention. The highest percentage of forgetting invariably occurs in the period closest to the time of retention or learning.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

STM acts as a filter for new information, preserving what is most relevant at the moment. Here, remembering and forgetting work together to synthesize memory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

LTM allows us to trace the trajectory of our lives, remembering our stories and preserving experiences along with their associated reasoning and emotions. It serves as a mental reminder of ourselves.

Theories of Forgetting

Interference Theory

This theory argues that the movement from one memory to another leads to forgetting, a phenomenon called interference. Interference can operate in several ways:

  • Retroactive Interference: Occurs when a second learning experience interferes with or distorts the recall of previous learning.
  • Proactive Interference: Occurs when initial learning distorts or prevents the recall of subsequent learning.
  • Interactive Interference: Occurs when two negative experiences act together.

Cognitive Restructuring Theory

All content enters and leaves memory by incorporating certain structures, producing an organized storage of information. Forgetting, in this context, occurs preferentially for information that fails to integrate into existing cognitive schemas.

Motivated Forgetting Theory

Motivations act directly on memory, influencing both retention and forgetting. We tend not to preserve information unless it serves purposes that we find attractive and motivating. This theory also incorporates the idea of unconscious forgetting, where memories become inaccessible to consciousness due to the mechanism of repression when there is conflict between opposing tendencies.