Class 12 Contemporary World Politics: Revision Notes 2024-25
Posted on Oct 24, 2025 in Social sciences
Print / Save as PDF. Updated for the 2024/25 Academic Session.
Contemporary World Politics: Class 12 Revision Notes (Chapters 1–7)
This comprehensive revision material covers the full syllabus for Class 12 Political Science, focusing on key concepts and accuracy notes for exam preparation.
Syllabus Covered
- End of Bipolarity
- Contemporary Power Centers
- Contemporary South Asia
- International Organizations
- Security in the Contemporary World
- Environment and Natural Resources
- Globalization
Accuracy Notes and Exam Fixes
- India is a founding **WTO** member (1995). China joined in 2001.
- European Parliament: **720 seats** (current). EU Rapid Deployment Capacity: up to 5,000 troops by 2025 (not an operational 60,000 force).
- The **ASEAN** bloc is among the largest global economies (often cited as 5th), not 3rd.
- Refugee flows are a **non-traditional security issue**.
- India’s climate pledge: reduce emissions intensity of GDP by **45%** from 2005 levels by 2030; **50%** installed electricity capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.
- Antarctic mining ban is **indefinite**; review possible from 2048 under the Madrid Protocol.
- On the **BRI**, prefer “debt distress” (Sri Lanka, Zambia) over blanket “defaults”.
Table of Contents
- Chapter 1: End of Bipolarity
- Chapter 2: Contemporary Power Centers
- Chapter 3: Contemporary South Asia
- Chapter 4: International Organizations
- Chapter 5: Security in the Contemporary World
- Chapter 6: Environment and Natural Resources
- Chapter 7: Globalization
- Final Exam Tips + High-Value Dates
Chapter 1: End of Bipolarity
1) Soviet Economy: Positive and Negative Aspects
Positive Aspects
- **Rapid Industrialization:** Five-Year Plans prioritized heavy industry and defense; by ~1940, the USSR was the second largest industrial power.
- **Social Welfare:** High literacy, universal healthcare, employment guarantees, and low-cost housing.
- **Military–Space Achievements:** Strategic nuclear parity with the US; *Sputnik* (1957), first human in space (1961).
- **Global Influence:** Led the socialist bloc (Warsaw Pact), supported anti-colonial movements.
Negative Aspects
- **Planning Inefficiencies:** Chronic shortages of consumer goods; weak responsiveness to demand.
- **Low Productivity Incentives:** State ownership and soft budget constraints reduced efficiency.
- **Defense Burden:** A very high military share of output drained civilian sectors.
- **Bureaucracy and Corruption:** Informal/black markets thrived; growth stalled by the late 1980s.
Key Takeaway
By the 1980s, the USSR remained a military superpower but had an ailing, shortage-prone economy.
2) Causes of Soviet Disintegration (1991)
| Factor | Details |
|---|
| Economic Stagnation | Late-1980s growth slowed sharply; structural inefficiencies and fiscal stress mounted. |
| Nationalism | Republics (Baltic states, Ukraine, Caucasus) asserted sovereignty and demanded independence. |
| Political Opening | Glasnost revealed past abuses and current failures, reducing CPSU legitimacy. |
| Reform Shock | Perestroika unsettled the command system without a stable market transition. |
| Elite Conflict | Yeltsin vs. Gorbachev split the center; Russian sovereignty claims weakened the union. |
| August 1991 Coup | Hardliners failed; the CPSU’s authority collapsed. |
| Belavezha Accords | Russia, Ukraine, Belarus declared the USSR dissolved; others followed. |
Result
Official dissolution occurred on 26 December 1991; 15 independent republics emerged.
3) Gorbachev’s Role and Reforms
| Reform | Meaning | Impact |
|---|
| Glasnost (Openness) | Greater press freedom, debate, transparency | Exposed corruption and past crimes; delegitimized one-party rule. |
| Perestroika (Restructuring) | Limited market measures; decentralization | Disrupted supply chains; shortages and inflation spiked. |
| Demokratizatsiya | Competitive elections within the system | Strengthened republic leaders and opposition voices. |
| New Thinking | Arms control, Afghanistan withdrawal, détente | Ended Cold War tensions; reduced global footprint. |
Paradox
Intended to save the system, the reforms accelerated its collapse.
4) Shock Therapy and Consequences
Definition: Rapid move from a command economy to markets (price liberalization, privatization, subsidy cuts, currency devaluation).
| Positive Outcomes | Negative Consequences |
|---|
| Fast dismantling of the old system; emergence of the private sector; global integration | Hyperinflation (e.g., Russia 1992), unemployment, inequality, state-asset capture by oligarchs, social safety net collapse |
Chapter 2: Contemporary Power Centers
1) European Union (EU) — Political and Economic Power
- **Origins:** From ECSC (1951), EEC (1957) to EU via the Maastricht Treaty (1993). Members: 27 (UK left in 2020).
- **Key Institutions:** European Commission (executive), European Parliament (720 MEPs), Council of the EU (member-state ministers), Court of Justice of the EU (interprets EU law).
Economic Power
- Single market with ~450 million consumers; GDP around **$17 Trillion**.
- Eurozone: 20 members use the euro.
- Major share of world trade (roughly 15% of global goods trade).
Political and Security Role
- **Norm-setter** on democracy, human rights, and climate (EU Green Deal).
- CSDP missions; EU Rapid Deployment Capacity up to 5,000 troops by 2025.
- **Soft Power:** Scholarships (Erasmus), standards, and development aid.
Challenges
- Integration vs. sovereignty (Brexit; national vetoes).
- Internal economic divergence (e.g., past eurozone crises).
- Migration pressures; external security (Russia–Ukraine war).
2) ASEAN — The “ASEAN Way” and Vision 2020
- **Founded:** 1967 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand); later Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia joined. Timor-Leste is on the path to membership.
- **ASEAN Way:** Non-interference, consensus decision-making, quiet diplomacy.
- **Vision 2020:** Peace, stability, and economic integration; evolved into the ASEAN Community (2015) and ASEAN Community Vision 2025.
- **Economy:** Among the top global economies as a bloc; strong intra-Asian supply chains.
Achievements
- No interstate war among members since 1967.
- AFTA reduced most tariffs; ARF convenes major powers.
- ASEAN Charter (2008) gave legal personality.
Challenges
- Myanmar coup (2021): limited progress on the Five-Point Consensus.
- South China Sea disputes (China vs. Vietnam/Philippines and others).
- Development gaps across members.
3) Rise of the Chinese Economy
- **Reforms since 1978:** Special Economic Zones (SEZs), agricultural decollectivization, SOE restructuring, WTO entry (2001).
- **Scale:** World’s second largest economy by nominal GDP; top exporter; major tech ambitions (AI, EVs, 5G).
- **Drivers:** Large labor force, infrastructure (world’s largest HSR network), state-guided capitalism.
- **Global Impact:** BRI financing across 150+ countries; tech/geopolitical competition; climate paradox (largest emitter and clean-energy leader).
- **Headwinds:** Aging population, environmental strain, property/debt challenges; BRI-linked debt distress in some partners (e.g., Sri Lanka, Zambia).
4) India–China Relations: Key Aspects
| Aspect | Details |
|---|
| History | Civilizational links; rupture after the 1962 war; unresolved boundary (Aksai Chin/Arunachal Pradesh). |
| Border | Line of Actual Control (LAC) incidents: Doklam (2017), Galwan (2020). Ongoing disengagement talks. |
| Trade | High interdependence with a large deficit for India (order of ~$85–100B in recent years). |
| Strategy | China–Pakistan axis (CPEC); India in Quad; both in SCO/BRICS. |
| Bottom Line | Cooperation in trade; competition and mistrust in security. |
Chapter 3: Contemporary South Asia
1) Pakistan — Causes of Democratic Fragility
- **Military Dominance:** Repeated coups/interventions; strong role in foreign and security policy.
- **Weak Institutions:** Civil–military imbalance; pressures on the judiciary, media, and political parties at various times.
- **Religion and Militancy:** Use of proxies has complicated internal security and politics.
- **External Factors:** Aid and geopolitics (Cold War, post-9/11) empowered the security establishment.
- **Elections:** Contested credibility at multiple points (e.g., 1977 crisis; 1990 “engineering”; 2018 pre-poll pressures; 2024 disputes). Peaceful transfers remain inconsistent.
2) Nepal and Bangladesh — Democratic Challenges
Nepal
- Monarchy abolished (2008) after Maoist insurgency; federal constitution (2015).
- Frequent coalition churn; center–province frictions; identity issues (Madhesi/Janajati).
- Disaster recovery and development delays (e.g., post-2015 earthquake).
Bangladesh
- Dominance of AL vs. BNP rivalry; election-related violence and boycotts at times.
- Concerns about opposition space, civil liberties, and press freedom (poor rankings in recent indexes).
- Rohingya refugee influx strains resources; security and humanitarian management challenges.
3) Indo–Bangladesh Relations
| Area | Details |
|---|
| Historical | India aided Bangladesh’s 1971 liberation; enduring goodwill. |
| Border | Land Boundary Agreement (2015) resolved enclaves; long, managed border. |
| Water | Teesta sharing remains pending due to center–state coordination (West Bengal). |
| Trade | India among top partners; garments, textiles, and growing connectivity boost commerce. |
| Security | Cooperation against insurgency/terrorism; improved Northeast connectivity. |
| Connectivity | Rail/bus links revived; power trade expanded. |
Chapter 4: International Organizations
1) United Nations — Why Reform?
- **Organs:** GA, SC, ECOSOC, ICJ, Secretariat, Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994).
- **Reform Drivers:** SC reflects 1945 power distribution; under-representation of Africa/Latin America; veto paralysis; slow bureaucracy.
- **Ideas:** Expand SC membership; regulate the veto (e.g., in mass atrocities); strengthen ECOSOC/GA roles; explore parliamentary assembly concepts.
2) UNSC Restructuring — Who, Why, and What Criteria?
| Coalitions | Positions |
|---|
| **G4** (India, Japan, Germany, Brazil) | Seek new permanent seats. |
| **Uniting for Consensus** | Oppose new permanent seats; prefer more non-permanent seats. |
- **Criteria Discussed:** Economic weight, population, military capability, peacekeeping contributions, regional representation, commitment to UN principles.
- **Obstacles:** P5 veto politics; regional rivalries; need for 2/3 GA + P5 concurrence.
3) India’s Case for a Permanent Seat
- World’s largest democracy; population ~1.4 Billion.
- Top-5 economy; growing strategic footprint.
- Strong military; responsible nuclear state.
- Major, sustained contributor to UN peacekeeping (one of the largest historically).
- Broad support from several major powers and regions.
4) Is the UN Still Relevant?
| Yes, because… | But challenged by… |
|---|
| Universality; legitimacy for collective action | Veto deadlocks on major conflicts |
| Global norm-setting (SDGs, Paris Agreement) | Enforcement deficits; funding strains |
| Functional agencies (WHO, UNHCR, UNFCCC) | Perception of bias; rise of regional bodies |
| Peace operations and mediation | Slow responses in some crises |
Verdict
The UN is indispensable but imperfect — reform is essential for 21st-century legitimacy and effectiveness.
Chapter 5: Security in the Contemporary World
1) Traditional Notion of Security
- **Focus:** State-centric; primary threats are external military aggression and territorial loss.
- **Instruments:** Armed forces, alliances, deterrence.
- **Examples:** World Wars, Cold War, India–Pakistan wars.
2) India’s Threats — Traditional vs Non-Traditional
| Traditional Threats | Non-Traditional Threats |
|---|
| Border disputes and military risks (China along the LAC; Pakistan LoC dynamics) | Terrorism and extremism (cross-border and domestic) |
| Nuclear deterrence and arms competition in the region | Cyber threats to data, finance, and infrastructure |
| External power rivalries affecting the Indian Ocean | Climate change (glacier melt, floods, heatwaves) |
| Sea-lane security, piracy risks | Pandemics and public health crises |
| Transnational crime (narcotics, trafficking, money laundering) |
| Resource stress (water, energy); refugee flows |
| Disinformation and information warfare |
3) New/Emerging Security Threats
- Terrorism and radicalization (e.g., 26/11 Mumbai attacks)
- Cyber operations, espionage, and ransomware
- Climate risks and disasters affecting livelihoods and stability
- Global pandemics disrupting societies and economies
- Critical supply-chain vulnerabilities (food, semiconductors, energy)
- Information operations and deepfakes undermining trust
Chapter 6: Environment and Natural Resources
1) Global Commons — Uses and Overuse
- **Definition:** Areas/resources beyond national jurisdiction: atmosphere, high seas, Antarctica, outer space.
- **Uses:** Shipping, fisheries, research; satellite services; scientific bases in Antarctica.
- **Problems:** Overfishing; ocean plastics; ozone depletion (mitigated by Montreal Protocol); space debris; potential polar resource pressures.
Note on Antarctica
The mining ban is indefinite under the Madrid Protocol; a review can be requested from 2048.
2) Earth Summit (UNCED, Rio 1992) — Outcomes
- **Agenda 21** (sustainable development action plan); Rio Declaration principles (e.g., precautionary, polluter pays).
- **UNFCCC** (led to Kyoto, Paris); **CBD** (biodiversity); Forest Principles (non-binding).
- Established “common but differentiated responsibilities” (**CBDR**).
3) India’s Steps to Reduce Environmental Problems
| Issue | Initiatives |
|---|
| Air Pollution | NCAP for city air; BS-VI fuel; vehicle emission norms; local measures (e.g., Delhi’s graded response) |
| Water | Namami Gange; riverfront STPs; Jal Jeevan Mission for tap water |
| Forests/Wildlife | Project Tiger (54 reserves), Project Elephant; CAMPA; Wildlife Protection Act |
| Renewables/Climate | Target ~500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030; large solar parks; Green Hydrogen Mission; NDC to cut emissions intensity by 45% |
| Waste/Sanitation | Swachh Bharat; solid waste rules; plastics curbs; extended producer responsibility |
| Institutions | Environment Protection Act; NGT for environmental adjudication |
4) Indigenous Peoples and Their Movements
- **Who:** Communities with distinct cultures tied to ancestral lands (Adivasis in India, Native Americans, Māori, etc.).
- **Issues:** Displacement by dams/mines/forestry, loss of language/culture, poverty, and marginalization.
- **Movements (Examples):** Chipko (forest protection); Narmada Bachao Andolan (dam displacement); Dongria Kondh vs. mining; Standing Rock (US); Amazon tribes vs. oil.
- **Advances:** Forest Rights Act (FRA, 2006) recognizes individual/community forest rights; UNDRIP (2007) on land/culture rights.
Significance
Indigenous stewardship is crucial for biodiversity and sustainable resource use.
Chapter 7: Globalization
1) Dimensions of Globalization
| Dimension | What it Covers |
|---|
| Economic | Trade, finance, FDI, global value chains, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) |
| Cultural | Flows of media, food, fashion, values; hybrid identities |
| Political | Global governance bodies (UN, WTO, WHO); transnational activism |
| Technological | Internet, AI, platforms, instant communication |
| Environmental | Shared ecological risks (climate, biodiversity) requiring cooperation |
2) Positive and Negative Consequences
| Positive Outcomes | Negative Consequences |
|---|
| Growth, jobs, technology diffusion | Job losses in some sectors; precarious work |
| Cheaper, better varieties of goods/services | Inequality (top 10% hold roughly 75–80% of global wealth) |
| Global problem-solving (climate, health) | Cultural homogenization; erosion of local languages |
| Stronger civil society networks | Labor/environmental exploitation in weakly regulated places |
| Mobility for study/work/tourism | Brain drain from developing countries |
3) Globalization and India — Two-Way Impacts
| Impact on India | India’s Impact on the World |
|---|
| FDI in IT, autos, electronics; integration into global supply chains | IT services and digital talent; major global delivery hub |
| Global brands reshape consumption | Bollywood, cuisine, yoga, Ayurveda spread worldwide |
| Import competition affects MSMEs | Remittances from the diaspora (world’s largest total) |
| Policy liberalization (tariffs, investment rules) | Climate diplomacy: advocacy for CBDR and equitable transitions |
| Exposure to global shocks (e.g., pandemics, recessions) | Vaccine manufacturing and health supply chains |
Exam Preparation: Tips and Key Dates
Final Exam Tips
- Always define first: “Globalization is the widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness…”
- Use current, accurate examples: “EU Parliament has 720 members”; “India’s NDC targets emissions intensity.”
- Link topics: “China’s rise reshapes regional blocs (ASEAN), tests global bodies (UN), and drives supply-chain security debates.”
- Balance: “Globalization raises growth but can widen inequality; policy matters.”
High-Value Dates You Should Know
- **1991:** Soviet disintegration
- **1992:** Rio Earth Summit (UNCED)
- **1993:** EU established via Maastricht Treaty
- **1995:** WTO established; India is a founding member
- **2001:** China joins WTO
- **2020:** Galwan clash
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