Citizenship: From Ancient Greece to Modern Political Thought
1. What Makes a Citizen?
A subject belongs to a society and is under its political and legal order. A citizen, however, is recognized by the state as having rights and obligations. In democratic societies, citizens share equal freedoms, rights, and duties.
2. Aristotle’s View on the City’s Origin and Purpose
Aristotle believed the city emerges chronologically from the house (family) and village, but its essence precedes them. The city’s purpose is to establish a just and good life, fulfilling humanity’s natural aspiration.
3. Man as a Political Animal (Aristotle)
Aristotle argued that humans are inherently political, unlike animals or gods. The city is the natural human habitat, where ethical and political life unfolds. Aristotle prioritized politics over individual ethics. In his time, citizenship was limited, excluding slaves, foreigners, and women.
4. The Hellenistic Crisis and Philosophical Responses
Hellenism marked the decline of the city-state model. Alexander the Great’s conquests expanded territories, diminishing the city’s importance and citizen’s rights. Philosophical schools reacted differently: Epicureans retreated to private life, while Stoics advocated for political participation and a universal law, coining the term “cosmopolitanism.” Roman citizenship expanded but reduced political involvement.
5. St. Augustine’s Conception of Citizenship
St. Augustine distinguished between the earthly city (self-love) and the city of God (divine love). He prioritized the Church over the State, influencing medieval political thought.
6. Citizenship and Feudalism
Feudalism overshadowed citizenship. Vassals served lords in exchange for protection, hindering universal rights and public participation.
7. Natural Moral Law and Universal Citizenship
The concept of natural moral law, rooted in Christian thought, suggested inherent rights that human laws should uphold. Modernity secularized this idea, leading to legal and political expressions of citizenship based on reason and human dignity.
8. Machiavelli’s View on Politics and Citizenship
Machiavelli separated private morality from the interests of the state (Reason of State). He advocated for a virtuous citizen who serves the state, even if human nature is inherently flawed. This marked a shift from medieval theological constraints.
9. Modernity’s Political Stakes
Modernity saw the emergence of a political subject with new understandings of state, citizenship, law, and liberty. The state’s legitimacy depends on recognizing individuals as citizens with rights. Citizenship became essential, preventing law from becoming oppressive force.
10. Comparing Contract Theories (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau)
- Hobbes: Individuals surrender all rights to an absolutist sovereign for protection.
- Locke: The state protects citizens’ lives and property, which are natural rights. This theory influenced liberalism.
- Rousseau: The social contract is a partnership between individuals and the community, where the general will prevails, forming the basis of a democratic state.
11. The French Revolution and the Enlightenment
Kant envisioned a cosmopolitan order based on a social pact between states. The French Revolution, with its Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, marked the culmination of Enlightenment ideals, transforming subjects into citizens.
12. The Liberal Model of Politics
Liberalism emphasizes individual freedom and limits state interference. It prioritizes negative freedom, protecting individual rights from state intrusion. The minimal state safeguards security and public order but avoids imposing a specific vision of the good life.
13. The Communitarian Model of Politics
Communitarianism argues that individual rights are realized within a community. While not inherently exclusionary, some communitarian views prioritize the community over the individual. A sense of belonging is crucial, often based on shared language, culture, or location.
14. The Republican Model of Politics
Republicanism encourages active citizen participation in the public sphere, based on civic virtues like tolerance, solidarity, and commitment to the common good. Citizen identity is political, grounded in law and civic virtues. The common good encompasses rules, procedures, and democratic values, requiring a public sphere and serving general interests.